Gastrointestinal toxicity induced by microcystins

Table 1 Summary of concentrations or locations of microcystins in experimental models

Model	Toxins	Exposure	Dose	Time	Experiments	Con. or loc.	Ref.
Caco-2 cell	MC-LRMC-RR	Incubation	1, 5, 20, 50 μmol/L	0.5, 2, 6, 24 h	Immunofluorescence	Periphery, cytoplasm, nucleus	[11]
IEC-6 cell	MC-LR	Incubation	6.25, 12.5, 25, 50 μmol/L	6, 12, 24 h	Immunofluorescence WB	Cytoplasm, around the nucleus	[18]
Medaka fish	MC-LR	Gavage	100 mg/L	2 h	Immunohistochemistry	In the cytoplasm of the submucosal macrophages	[21]
Cyprinus carpio, anguilla anguilla	MC-LR MC-RR	Immersion	Lake Oubeira	12 mo	HPLC	Intestine > hepatopancreas liver > intestine	[22]
Aristichthys nobilis	MC-LR MC-RR	i.p.	50, 200 μg/kg body weight	1, 3, 12, 24, 48, 72 h	LC–ESI-MS	Higher in intestine than in other organs liver > intestine	[23]
Silver carp	MC-LR/MC-RR	Immersion	40 mm plankton net	40, 80 d	HPLC	49.2 and 115.3 (average 78.8) μg/g DW	[24]
Crayfish	MC-LR	Immersion	0.1, 1, 10, 100 μg/L	8 h, 1, 3, 4, 7 d	HPLC	Higher in intestine than in other organs	[25]
Bellamya aeruginosa	MC-LR MC-RR MC-YR	Immersion	Lake Taihu	12 mo	LC-MS	Intestine > hepatopancreas	[26]
Jenynsia multidentata, corydoras paleatus	MC-RR	Immersion	50 μg/L	24 h	HPLC LC-ESI-TOF–MS	Liver > intestine	[27]
Aristichthys nobilis	MC-LR	Immersion	Lake Taihu	12 mo	LC-MS/HPLC-UV	85.67 mg/g DW	[28]
Freshwater mussels	MC-LR MC-RR MC-YR	Immersion	Lake Taihu	12 mo	LC-MS HPLC	20.65 μg/g DW	[30]
Carassius auratus	MC-LRMC-RR	i.p.	200 μg/kg body weight	1, 3, 12, 24, 48 h	LC-MS	Less than 0.1% of the injected MCs	[31]
Bivalves	MC-LR MC-RR MC-YR	Immersion	Lake Taihu	6 mo	LC-MS	Hepatopancreas > intestine	[32]
Wistar rat	MC-LR	i.v.	80 μg/kg body weight	1, 2, 4, 6, 12, 24 h	LC-MS	Less than 0.2% of injected MCs	[33]
Carassius carassius	MC-LR MC-RR	i.p.	50 μg/kg body weight	1, 3, 12, 24, 48, 168 h	LC-MS	Less than 0.05% of injected MCs	[34]
Freshwater fish at different trophic levels	MC-LR/MC-RR	Immersion	Lake Chaohu	-	HPLC/LC/ESI-MS	Higher in intestine than in other organs	[35]

“Con.”, “loc.” and “-” represent the concentration, location and no data, respectively. MC: Microcystin; LC-MS: Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry; HPLC: High-performance liquid chromatography.