Emerging role of mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes in the repair of acute kidney injury

Table 1 The causes of acute kidney injury

Causes of AKI	Specific causes
Prerenal	Renal hypoperfusion, such as acute bleeding or diarrhea, dehydration, shock
Intrinsic	Renal ischemia, drug nephrotoxicity, glomerulonephritis, infection, ischemia-reperfusion injury, different group blood transfusion, vasculitis, etc.
Postrenal	Lithiasis, tumor, prostatomegaly

AKI: Acute kidney injury.

Table 2 Molecules delivered by mesenchymal stem cells derived exosomes for acute kidney injury therapy

Molecules	Source	AKI types	Conditions		Ref.
Protein	14-3-3ζ	HucMSC	Cisplatin-induced	Upregulating autophagic level	[74]
		HucMSC	Cisplatin-induced	Interacting with ATG16 L to activate autophagy	[75]
		HucMSC	Diabetic kidney disease	Promoting YAP cytoplasmic retention instead of entering the nucleus, enhancing autophagy in the cytoplasm	[76]
	Sox9	ADMSC	Ischemia/reperfusion	Upregulating Sox9 and promoting tubular regeneration	[78]
MiRNA	MiR-125b-5p	HucMSC	Ischemia/reperfusion	Repressing p53, upregulating CDK1 and cyclin B1 to rescue G2/M arrest, and inhibiting tubular epithelial cell apoptosis	[79]
	let-7b-5p	HBMMSC	Cisplatin-induced	Inhibiting P53 and reducing DNA damage and apoptosis	[80]
	MiR-874-3p	HucMSC	Cisplatin-induced	Targeting RIPK1/PGAM5 pathway	[81]
	MiR-146b	HucMSC	Sepsis-associated	Upregulating miR-146b levels and reducing IRAK1 expression resulting in inhibition of NF-κB activity	[82]
	MiR-199a-3p	HBMMSC	Hypoxia/reoxygenation injury	Decreasing Sema3A and activating the AKT and ERK pathways	[83]
	MiR-1184	HucMSC	Cisplatin-induced	Inducing G1 phase arrest in HK-2 cells by regulating FOXO4, p27 Kip1, and CDK2. Inhibiting cisplatin-induced inflammatory responses	[84]
	MiR-216a-5p	USC	Ischemia/reperfusion	Targeting PTEN and regulating cell apoptosis through the AKT pathway	[85]
	MiR-342-5p	ADMSC	Sepsis-related	Inhibiting TLR9, thereby promoting autophagy, mitigating inflammation, and reducing kidney damage	[86]
LncRNA	LncRNA TUG1	HucMSC	Ischemia/reperfusion	Interacting with SRSF1 to regulate ACSL4-mediated ferroptosis	[88]
CircRNA	CircVMA21	ADMSC	Sepsis-related	Increasing circVMA21 expression and decreasing miR-16-5p expression	[89]
	Circ DENND4C	USC	Ischemia/reperfusion	Inhibiting pyroptosis	[90]

AKI: Acute kidney injury; MiRNA: MicroRNA; LncRNA: Long-chain noncoding RNA; CircRNA: Circular RNA; Sox9: Sry-related HMG box 9; HucMSC: Human umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cell; ADMSC: Adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cell; HBMMSC: Human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cell; USC: Urine-derived stem cell; ATG16: Autophagy-related protein 16; YAP: Yes-associated protein 1; RIPK1: Receptor-interacting protein kinase 1; PGAM5: Phosphoglycerate mutase family member 5; IRAK1: Interleukin-1 receptor associated kinase 1; NF-κB: Nuclear factor-kappaB; Sema3A: Semaphorin 3A; AKT: Protein kinase B; ERK: Extracellular-signal-regulated kinase; FOXO4: Forkhead box protein O 4; PTEN: Phosphatase and tensin homolog; TLR9: Toll-like receptor 9; SRSF1: Serine/arginine-rich splicing factor 1; ACSL4: Acyl-CoA synthetase long-chain family member 4.