• Helminth community structure
• Parasite ecology
• Rodents
• Schistosomiasis
• Water rats
• Wild reservoir

• Child
• Animals
• Humans
• Soil
• Bayes Theorem
• Bangladesh/epidemiology
• Helminthiasis/drug therapy
• Helminthiasis/epidemiology
• Helminthiasis/prevention & control
• Hookworm Infections/drug therapy
• Hookworm Infections/epidemiology
• Helminths
• Ancylostomatoidea
• Ascaris lumbricoides
• Prevalence
• Feces

• Children Without Worms

• Burden of diseases
• Communicable diseases
• Human development index
• Inequality
• Injuries
• Non-communicable

• Communicable Diseases/epidemiology
• Cost of Illness
• Disabled Persons
• Global Burden of Disease
• Global Health
• Health Status Disparities
• Humans
• Infant, Newborn
• Noncommunicable Diseases/epidemiology
• Quality-Adjusted Life Years
• Social Class

• Animals
• Cell Proliferation/genetics
• Drosophila Proteins/genetics
• Drosophila melanogaster/genetics
• Drosophila melanogaster/parasitology
• Enterocytes/metabolism
• Enterocytes/parasitology
• Fertility/genetics
• Gene Expression Regulation/genetics
• Host-Parasite Interactions/genetics
• Humans
• Intestines/parasitology
• STAT Transcription Factors/genetics
• Signal Transduction/genetics
• Stem Cells/metabolism
• Toll-Like Receptors/genetics
• Transcription Factor RelA/genetics
• Transcription Factors/genetics
• Trypanosomatina/genetics
• Trypanosomatina/pathogenicity

• Wellcome Trust
• Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council

It is estimated that faecal-orally transmitted diseases are common in Afghanistan, as a consequence of poor hygienic standards of life and widespread contamination of water and food with both human and animal faeces. However, there is little information in the literature concerning infections caused by intestinal parasites in the Afghan population. In this study, we report the occurrence of Giardia intestinalis assemblages (A and B) in formalin-fixed stool samples collected from 245 Afghan schoolchildren living in Ghazni Province in eastern Afghanistan. Detection of the parasite’s DNA and genotyping was performed using real-time PCR, specific to the β-giardin gene of G. intestinalis. Positive results were recorded in 52 (21.2%) samples. Genotyping was successful in 39 faecal samples and showed the predominance of assemblage B of G. intestinalis in this population (15 assemblage A and 24 assemblage B). Co-infection with both genotypes A and B was detected in four samples. Additionally, we evaluated the effect of 10% buffered formalin fixative on the detection of G. intestinalis DNA using real-time PCR and nested PCR characterised by different lengths of PCR products (74 and 479 bp, respectively). The human faeces containing the Giardia cysts were tested for 16 weeks. Amplification of G. intestinalis DNA with real-time PCR was possible up to 6 weeks of preservation of stool sample in formalin, compared to only 2 weeks with nested PCR. This suggests that real-time PCR is a more suitable tool in cases where stool samples have to be kept in formalin for longer periods of time.

• Afghanistan
• Assemblages
• Children
• Giardia
• Nested PCR
• Real-time PCR

• Adolescent
• Afghanistan
• Animals
• Biological Assay
• Child
• Child, Preschool
• Feces/parasitology
• Formaldehyde
• Genotype
• Giardia lamblia/genetics
• Giardia lamblia/isolation & purification
• Giardiasis/parasitology
• Humans
• Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction

Dengue is one of the most common arthropod-borne viral diseases in humans and it is a leading cause of illness and death in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. It is thought to account for 400 million cases annually among approximately 3.97 billion people at risk of infection in 128 endemic countries. Despite the global prevalence of the disease, the availability of a vaccine is limited in most countries in the endemic areas. Most endemic countries in South America, South East Asia and Africa serve as attractive touristic sites for people from non-endemic countries who become infected and export the virus to dengue-free regions. Dengue fever typically resembles malaria and in endemic countries most cases of dengue are treated as presumptive malaria. Consequently, routine dengue diagnosis among persons with fever will offer early treatment and reduce the burden of the disease. Also, routine testing among travellers from endemic countries will reduce importation and prevent the geographical expansion of dengue. In this essay, we seek to highlight the usefulness of routine dengue testing in endemic countries.

• Dengue virus
• Endemic
• Mosquito
• Vector-borne

• Global Health
• Humans
• Neglected Diseases/epidemiology
• Religion
• Tropical Medicine

• Africa/epidemiology
• Asia/epidemiology
• Communicable Diseases/epidemiology
• Developing Countries
• Europe/epidemiology
• Humans
• Neglected Diseases/epidemiology
• Socioeconomic Factors
• Tropical Climate

• P30 DK056338 NIDDK NIH HHS

African animal trypanosomiasis (AAT) is considered to be one of the greatest constraints to livestock production and livestock-crop integration in most African countries. South-eastern Uganda has suffered for more than two decades from outbreaks of zoonotic Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT), adding to the burden faced by communities from AAT. There is insufficient AAT and HAT data available (in the animal reservoir) to guide and prioritize AAT control programs that has been generated using contemporary, sensitive and specific molecular techniques. This study was undertaken to evaluate the burden that AAT presents to the small-scale cattle production systems in south-eastern Uganda.

Randomised cluster sampling was used to select 14% (57/401) of all cattle containing villages across Tororo District. Blood samples were taken from all cattle in the selected villages between September-December 2011; preserved on FTA cards and analysed for different trypanosomes using a suite of molecular techniques. Generalized estimating equation and Rogen-Gladen estimator models were used to calculate apparent and true prevalences of different trypanosomes while intra cluster correlations were estimated using a 1-way mixed effect analysis of variance (ANOVA) in R statistical software version 3.0.2.

The prevalence of all trypanosome species in cattle was 15.3% (95% CI; 12.2-19.1) while herd level trypanosome species prevalence varied greatly between 0-43%. Trypanosoma vivax (17.4%, 95% CI; 10.6-16.8) and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense (0.03%) were respectively, the most, and least prevalent trypanosome species identified.

The prevalence of bovine trypanosomes in this study indicates that AAT remains a significant constraint to livestock health and livestock production. There is need to implement tsetse and trypanosomiasis control efforts across Tororo District by employing effective, cheap and sustainable tsetse and trypanosomiasis control methods that could be integrated in the control of other endemic vector borne diseases like tick-borne diseases.

African trypanosomes constrain livestock and human health in Sub-Saharan Africa, and aggravate poverty and hunger of these otherwise largely livestock-keeping communities. To solve this, there is need to develop and use effective and cheap tsetse control methods. To this end, we aimed at determining the smallest proportion of a cattle herd that needs to be sprayed on the legs, bellies and ears (RAP) for effective Human and Animal African Trypanosomiasis (HAT/AAT) control.

Cattle in 20 villages were ear-tagged and injected with two doses of diminazene diaceturate (DA) forty days apart, and randomly allocated to one of five treatment regimens namely; no treatment, 25%, 50%, 75% monthly RAP and every 3 month Albendazole drench. Cattle trypanosome re-infection rate was determined by molecular techniques. ArcMap V10.3 was used to map apparent tsetse density (FTD) from trap catches. The effect of graded RAP on incidence risk ratios and trypanosome prevalence was determined using Poisson and logistic random effect models in R and STATA V12.1 respectively. Incidence was estimated at 9.8/100 years in RAP regimens, significantly lower compared to 25.7/100 years in the non-RAP regimens (incidence rate ratio: 0.37; 95% CI: 0.22–0.65; P<0.001). Likewise, trypanosome prevalence after one year of follow up was significantly lower in RAP animals than in non-RAP animals (4% vs 15%, OR: 0.20, 95% CI: 0.08–0.44; P<0.001). Contrary to our expectation, level of protection did not increase with increasing proportion of animals treated.

Reduction in RAP coverage did not significantly affect efficacy of treatment. This is envisaged to improve RAP adaptability to low income livestock keepers but needs further evaluation in different tsetse challenge, HAT/AAT transmission rates and management systems before adopting it for routine tsetse control programs.

Poverty, hunger and human ill-health aggravated by trypanosomiasis in Sub-Saharan Africa can only be reduced by developing and using cheap and effective tsetse control methods. To further reduce the cost of tsetse control by restricting insecticides to the legs, belly and ears (RAP) we set out to determine the lowest RAP coverage that can effectively control tsetse. Cattle in 20 south-eastern Uganda villages were randomly allocated to 5 treatment groups, ear-tagged for ease of follow-up and treated twice forty days apart with a trypanocide at the beginning of the trial. Cattle in regimens 2–4 received monthly graded RAP (25%, 50% and 75% of village herd respectively), while those in regimens 1 and 5 received no more treatment and deworming once every three months respectively. Molecular techniques were used to check for trypanosome infections, while tsetse apparent density was determined by traps at 161 locations in the district. About 25% RAP coverage was effective at controlling T. brucei s.l. while 50–75% RAP coverage would need to be used for effective T.vivax and T.congolense nagana control. Use of RAP at lower herd coverage is envisaged to reduce its cost, damage to the environment and improve its uptake in resource poor communities.

• Albendazole/pharmacology
• Animals
• Cattle
• Cattle Diseases/epidemiology
• Cattle Diseases/prevention & control
• Cattle Diseases/transmission
• Diminazene/analogs & derivatives
• Diminazene/pharmacology
• Female
• Humans
• Insect Control
• Insecticides/pharmacology
• Male
• Population Density
• Trypanosomiasis, African/epidemiology
• Trypanosomiasis, African/prevention & control
• Trypanosomiasis, African/transmission
• Trypanosomiasis, African/veterinary
• Uganda

• Necator americanus
• glutathione S-transferase

• Animals
• Catalytic Domain
• Crystallography, X-Ray
• Glutathione/chemistry
• Glutathione Transferase/chemistry
• Models, Molecular
• Molecular Structure
• Necator americanus/enzymology

• R03 AI065990 NIAID NIH HHS

• Global Health
• Health Policy
• Humans
• International Cooperation
• United States
• Vaccination/methods
• Vaccination/statistics & numerical data
• Vaccines/administration & dosage
• Vaccines/supply & distribution

• Global Health
• Humans
• Neglected Diseases
• Tropical Medicine

• GST
• Necator americanus
• hookworms
• inhibition
• vaccines

• Amino Acid Sequence
• Animals
• Binding Sites/physiology
• Crystallography, X-Ray
• Glutathione Transferase/chemistry
• Glutathione Transferase/genetics
• Glutathione Transferase/metabolism
• Helminth Proteins/chemistry
• Helminth Proteins/genetics
• Helminth Proteins/metabolism
• Humans
• Isoenzymes/chemistry
• Isoenzymes/genetics
• Isoenzymes/metabolism
• Molecular Sequence Data
• Necator americanus/enzymology
• Necator americanus/genetics

• Death
• Humans
• Plague/prevention & control
• Starvation
• Tropical Medicine
• Warfare

Schistosomiasis is a debilitating disease affecting approximately 600 million people in 74 developing countries, with 800 million, mostly children at risk. To circumvent the threat of having praziquantel (PZQ) as the only drug used for treatment, several PZQ derivatives were synthesized, and drugs destined for other parasites were used with success. A plethora of plant-derived oils and extracts were found to effectively kill juvenile and adult schistosomes, yet none was progressed to pre- and clinical studies except an oleo-gum resin extracted from the stem of Commiphora molmol, myrrh, which action was challenged in several trials. We have proposed an essential fatty acid, a component of our diet and cells, the polyunsaturated fatty acid arachidonic acid (ARA) as a remedy for schistosomiasis, due to its ability to activate the parasite tegument-bound neutral sphingomyelinase, with subsequent hydrolysis of the apical lipid bilayer sphingomyelin molecules, allowing access of specific antibody molecules, and eventual worm attrition. This concept was convincingly supported using larval and adult Schistosoma mansoni and Schistosoma haematobium worms in in vitro experiments, and in vivo studies in inbred mice and outbred hamsters. Even if ARA proves to be an entirely effective and safe therapy for schistosomiasis, it will not prevent reinfection, and accordingly, the need for developing an effective vaccine remains an urgent priority. Our studies have supported the status of S. mansoni calpain, glutathione-S-transferase, aldolase, triose phosphate isomerase, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase, enolase, and 2-cys peroxiredoxin as vaccine candidates, as they are larval excreted-secreted products and, contrary to the surface membrane molecules, are entirely accessible to the host immune system effector elements. We have proposed that the use of these molecules, in conjunction with Th2 cytokines-inducing adjuvants for recruiting and activating eosinophils and basophils, will likely lead to development and implementation of a sterilizing vaccine in a near future.

• Arachidonic acid
• Excretory–secretory products
• Schistosoma haematobium
• Schistosoma mansoni
• Schistosomicides
• Type 2 adjuvants

• Animals
• Cluster Analysis
• DNA, Mitochondrial/chemistry
• DNA, Mitochondrial/genetics
• Humans
• Molecular Sequence Data
• Phylogeny
• Sequence Analysis, DNA
• Swine
• Trichuriasis/parasitology
• Trichuriasis/veterinary
• Trichuris/classification
• Trichuris/genetics
• Trichuris/isolation & purification

• Humans
• Leprosy/epidemiology
• Leprosy/prevention & control
• Neglected Diseases/epidemiology
• Neglected Diseases/prevention & control
• Parasitic Diseases/epidemiology
• Parasitic Diseases/prevention & control
• Religion and Medicine
• Trachoma/epidemiology
• Trachoma/prevention & control
• Tropical Climate

• Communicable Disease Control/organization & administration
• Global Health
• Health Policy
• Humans
• Neglected Diseases/epidemiology
• Neglected Diseases/prevention & control
• Tropical Climate
• United States

Schistosoma mansoni, one of the causative agents of schistosomiasis, has a complex life cycle infecting over 200 million people worldwide. Such a successful and prolific parasite life cycle has been shown to be dependent on the adaptive interaction between the parasite and hosts. Tyrosine kinases (TKs) play a key role in signaling pathways as demonstrated by a large body of experimental work in eukaryotes. Furthermore, comparative genomics have allowed the identification of TK homologs and provided insights into the functional role of TKs in several biological systems. Finally, TK structural biology has provided a rational basis for obtaining selective inhibitors directed to the treatment of human diseases. This paper covers the important aspects of the phospho-tyrosine signaling network in S. mansoni, Caenorhabditis elegans, and humans, the main process of functional diversification of TKs, that is, protein-domain shuffling, and also discusses TKs as targets for the development of new anti-schistosome drugs.

• Africa/epidemiology
• Asia/epidemiology
• Catholicism
• Developing Countries
• Humans
• Latin America/epidemiology
• Neglected Diseases/epidemiology
• Parasitic Diseases/epidemiology
• Socioeconomic Factors

• Communicable Disease Control/economics
• Communicable Disease Control/methods
• Developing Countries
• Humans
• Parasitic Diseases/economics
• Parasitic Diseases/epidemiology
• Parasitic Diseases/prevention & control

• Communicable Diseases/economics
• Communicable Diseases/parasitology
• Global Health
• Helminthiasis/economics
• Helminthiasis/parasitology
• Humans
• Islam
• Tropical Medicine/economics