The low bioaccessibility of β-carotene limits its application in the food field. 3D printed emulsion gels stabilized by whey protein/polysaccharide were constructed in our previous study, and the stability of β-carotene was improved. However, the release behaviour and bioaccessibility of β-carotene have not been thoroughly explored. This study aimed to explore the effects of different charged polysaccharides on the release and bioaccessibility of β-carotene from 3D printed delivery systems and to analyze their relationship with protein secondary structure. The results showed that the printed systems induced by adding xanthan gum (anionic) had lower degree of hydrolysis (DH) of protein and release of free fatty acids (FFAs), and lower β-carotene release and bioaccessibility. The printed systems induced by adding guar gum (neutral), locust bean gum (neutral) and gum arabic (anionic) exhibited higher DH of protein and release of FFAs (>91 %), higher β-carotene release (>93 %) and bioaccessibility (>30 %). The release of β-carotene from the printed systems during digestion conformed to the logistic model, with frame erosion and Fickian diffusion being main mechanisms. The digestibility, β-carotene release and bioaccessibility of the printed systems were positively correlated with β-turn content. The printed system with guar gum had the highest β-carotene bioaccessibility (33.95 %).

The gastroduodenal junction is uniquely capable of regulating digestive functions in the gastrointestinal system. The pyloric sphincter, which demarcates the stomach from the small intestine, acts as a mechanical and electrical barrier, isolating each organ, thus enabling independent behaviors that are critical for proper digestion. Unique electrical patterns in the stomach, pylorus, and duodenum underpin the distinct contractile patterns of these regions, and improper organization of these mechanical behaviors leads to clinical conditions such as gastroparesis and dumping syndrome. For this reason, the gastroduodenal junction should be a focal point in investigations of novel biomarkers of gastrointestinal dysfunction. This review summarizes the current knowledge of bioelectrical and mechanical characteristics of the gastroduodenal junction, as well as the relevant underlying anatomy. As there is limited documentation of physiological recordings from the gastroduodenal junction of humans, inferences are made from animal studies and from measurements taken from other regions of the gastrointestinal tract, where appropriate. We suggest hypotheses on gastroduodenal electromechanical coupling and propose further studies to support or reject these ideas. Improved physiological understanding of this region, and the advent of novel diagnostic and therapeutic tools are crucial aspects for the future of clinical gastrointestinal medicine.

Older people represent approximately 20% of the Polish population and are the primary population using medications. Behaviours connected with drug intake (such as dosage form modifications, type and amount of fluid and/or food accompanying administration) are crucial for drug efficacy and avoidance of adverse effects. The presented study had three research aims; firstly, to investigate the real-life drug administration process among older adults and geriatric patients in Poland. Secondly, to compare data from Poland with data from a previous study performed in Germany, based on the same questionnaire. Thirdly, to discuss the potential influence of dosing conditions on the behaviour of orally administered medications (especially drug absorption) and identify potential problems with drug intake itself. This questionnaire-based study was conducted in the form of in-person interviews led by research team members. In this study, 174 participants, aged 65-94 years old were recruited from three settings in the Pomeranian region of Poland: home setting, nursing home and hospital. In Poland, the preferred method of medication intake was administration of all medications simultaneously. Patients were taking their medications most often directly after food ingestion, which commonly consisted of bread with butter, ham or cheese and black tea. The most common fluid for drug administration was either a few sips or 100 mL of non-carbonated water (mineral or tap water) as well as black tea. Dividing tablets (defined as splitting tablets in parts) was the most common modification. There were many similarities in the way of administering medications between the Polish and German older populations, specifically the use of non-carbonated water as the most common fluid for medication intake as well as bread as the main ingredient of breakfast and dinner. The biggest difference between populations was the choice of black tea as a medium for medication intake much more frequently in the Polish population than the German (who also preferred mint, herbal and fruit teas), and using a smaller volume of fluid. The presented study gives insight into the medication intake process in the older Polish population from the Pomeranian region in North Poland in comparison to the German population from the Pomeranian region in North East Germany. The results may help to identify factors that could decrease medication efficacy and safety, which is crucial, especially for the older population. Furthermore, the collected data may be useful for in vitro or in silico simulations to enhance drug development based on real-life data.

The meal sequencing of macronutrients has been shown to ameliorate postprandial glucose excursion, but its effects in daily meals has not been investigated. We examined the impact on the glucose response to meal sequencing in healthy Japanese adults using continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) during a typical lunch meal.

The test meal was a Japanese set meal or a beef and rice bowl, the contents of which were categorized as "rice" or "non-rice". In the meal experiments, the subjects ingested the two categories of food in one of three orders: non-rice before rice, non-rice and rice together, and non-rice after rice. In the beef and rice bowl experiments, the subjects ingested either non-rice 15 min before rice or the two foods together.

The postprandial glucose level was measured over a 4 h period and the mean level of postprandial glucose was significantly lower than that when eating rice before non-rice or both together. Consuming non-rice before rice significantly reduced postprandial glycemic excursions in healthy adults in both experiments.

Meal-sequencing by "eat carbs last" is a feasible dietary strategy for the better prevention and management of diabetes.

Elderly individuals experience age-related declines in digestive function, which can hinder the digestion of dietary proteins and thereby negatively impact overall health. This study provides a comprehensive understanding of the protein digestive fate of beef with Protease-DS supplementation by analyzing gastric emptying behavior and amino acid and peptide profiles during a simulated in vitro elderly digestion process. The adult model exhibited superior gastric emptying capacity, with relatively rapid and early expulsion of gastric digesta into the intestinal segment. Additionally, the underperforming elderly model showed notable improvement in the emptying process with Protease-DS supplementation, achieving a rate of 0.0110 min-1, which was close to the adult model of 0.0125 min-1 and significantly faster than the elderly model of 0.0080 min-1. Protein digestibility in the elderly model was significantly enhanced with Protease-DS supplementation, increasing from 55.62 % to 63.60 %, approaching that of the adult model (69.60 %). Protease-DS significantly improved the essential amino acid score (EAAS), particularly for methionine + cysteine, phenylalanine + tyrosine, lysine, and leucine. Furthermore, it enhanced the release of unique polypeptide fragments, distinct from those in both the adult and elderly models, and demonstrated significant anti-amnesic and antithrombotic bioactive functions, highlighting its potential to improve memory and reduce blood clotting. This study provides guidance for elderly consumers on enhancing dietary protein digestion through protease supplementation, presenting it as an effective strategy to address protein deficiency and improve health and well-being.

Magenstrasse (stomach road) is reported to potentially influence the absorption of orally administered drugs by facilitating a gastric emptying of ingested water under postprandial condition. We hypothesized the Magenstrasse is a consequence of the formation of protein aggregates due to the decrease in gastric pH associated with stimulated gastric acid secretion. The formation mechanism of the Magenstrasse was examined in vitro using a gastric chamber system which reproduces postprandial conditions in the stomach. Oral liquid meals containing different amounts of proteins were mixed with simulated gastric fluid containing pepsin in the gastric chamber. When a high-protein liquid meal was used, infusion of gastric acid caused protein denaturation, generating semisolid aggregates. Then, to evaluate the impact of the aggregates, fluorescein isothiocyanate-dextran 4000 (FD-4) solution was added. The presence of protein aggregates facilitated the elution of FD-4 from the gastric chamber, indicating that the semisolid aggregates suppressed mixing of FD-4 solution with meals. In addition, formation of the same type of protein aggregates was observed in vivo in rat stomach after ingesting a high-protein liquid meal. These in vitro and in vivo results support the idea that protein aggregation of liquid meals in the stomach contributes the formation of the Magenstrasse.

Probiotics are live microorganisms that inhabit the gastrointestinal tract and confer health benefits to consumers. However, a sufficient number of viable probiotic cells must be delivered to the specific site of interest in the gastrointestinal tract to exert these benefits. Enhanced viability and tolerance to sublethal gastrointestinal stress can be achieved using appropriate coating materials and food matrices for orally consumed probiotics. The release mechanism and interaction of probiotic microcapsules with the gastrointestinal tract have been minimally explored in the literature to date. To the authors' knowledge, no review has been published to discuss the nature of release and the challenges in the targeted delivery of probiotics. This review addresses gastrointestinal-related complications in the formulation of targeted delivery and controlled release of probiotic strains. It investigates the impacts of environmental stresses during the transition stage and delivery to the target region in the gastrointestinal tract. The influence of factors such as pH levels, enzymatic degradation, and redox conditions on the release mechanisms of probiotics is presented. Finally, the available methods to evaluate the efficiency of a probiotic delivery system, including in vitro and in vivo, are reviewed and assessed. The paper concludes with a discussion highlighting the emerging technologies in the field and emphasising key areas in need of future study.

Bone-eating (also known as osteophagia), found in wild animals, is primarily recognized as a means to supplement phosphorus and calcium intake. Herein, we describe a novel function of bone-eating in detoxifying heavy metal ions through the dissolution and co-precipitation of bone minerals as they travel through the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. In this study, cadmium (Cd), a heavy metal ion, served as a toxic model. We demonstrated that hydroxyapatite (HAp), the major calcium phosphate (CaP) in bone, dissolves in the stomach and acts as a co-precipitant in the intestine for Cd detoxification. We compared HAp to a common antidote, activated charcoal (AC), which did not precipitate within the GI tract. In vitro experiments showed that HAp dissolves under acidic conditions and, upon return to a neutral environment, efficiently re-sequesters Cd. Similarly, oral administration of HAp effectively prevented Cd absorption and accumulation, resulting in enhanced Cd excretion in the feces when compared to AC. A co-precipitating CaP in the GI tract could serve as an excellent detoxification system, as it helps prevent the accumulation of toxic substances and aids in developing appropriate strategies to reduce tissue toxicity. Moreover, understanding this detoxification system would be a valuable indicator for designing efficient detoxification materials.

Food-Drug Interaction (FDI) refers to the phenomenon where food affects the pharmacokinetic or pharmacodynamic characteristics of a drug, significantly altering the drug's absorption rate or absorption extent. These Interactions are considered as a primary determinant in influencing the bioavailability of orally administered drugs within the gastrointestinal tract. The impact of food on drug absorption is complex and multifaceted, potentially involving alterations in gastrointestinal physiology, increases in splanchnic blood flow rates, and shifts in the gut microbiota's composition. Up to now, extensive research has focused on the interactions between food composition (such as proteins, fats, and vitamins) and drug absorption. In contrast, the impact of food physical properties (such as viscosity, volume, and pH) has received less attention in drug development. This article reviewed the impact of food properties on oral drug absorption based on a comprehensive literature search, focusing on the influence of food volume and food viscosity. From the perspective of pharmacokinetics, we examined interaction trends between food properties and drugs across different classification based on the Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS). In addition, we introduced the practical application of physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling in predicting oral drug absorption under the influence of food Properties.

To evaluate and summarize the best evidence of home enteral tube feeding (HETF) care management in the elderly to provide an evidence-based basis for caregivers to implement care interventions.

Evidence on HETF care management in the elderly was retrieved from Chinese and international databases, guidelines, and websites of professional associations, including systematic reviews and expert consensuses, using the keywords of home enteral nutrition, home tube feeding, old, elder, home care, etc. The literature considered in this study was published from April 2019 to April 2024. Two trained researchers independently evaluated the quality of the included literature, graded the literature using the JBI evidence pre-grading system, classified and summarized the extracted evidence.

A total of 15 articles were included, including 1 clinical decision, 1 guideline, 3 best evidence summaries, 4 systematic reviews, 2 randomized controlled trials, and 4 quasi-experimental studies. 18 pieces of the best evidence were summarized in 3 aspects, including the NST administration, education of caregivers, and selection of nutrition formulas.

This study comprehensively summarized the best evidence of home enteral tube feeding care management in the elderly and provided a scientific basis for caregivers to implement care interventions. In home care settings, using evidence-based practices requires developing a comprehensive care management system based on the trinity of hospital, community and home, in order to reduce the incidence of HETF-related complications, improve the quality of life of the elderly with HETF, and provide a practical reference for NST members and caregivers.

Antibiotic therapy has been the most popular line of treatment for the control of mastitis worldwide during the last few decades. Alternative and sustainable treatments must be developed because pathogens are becoming more resistant to antibiotics, leading to the development and spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). The aim of the current investigation was to isolate lactic acid bacteria (LAB) with probiotic potential that can inhibit mastitis-causing pathogens to prevent bovine mastitis. Milk samples were collected from Sahiwal cows, and a total of 150 bacteria were isolated, of which 76 were found to be catalase negative, and resistant to vancomycin. Twenty-three isolates displayed greater acid and bile tolerance, with > 90% survivability, and were molecularly characterized by 16S rRNA partial sequencing. The autoaggregation percentages for SML7 and SML41 were greater (p<0·05) 80.38±0.19% and 80.28±0.04%, respectively. SML10 (92.04±0.26 μmol/mL) had the highest (p<0.05) ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) activity, while SML20 (52.1±0.99%) had the highest 1,1 diphenyl 2 picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) scavenging activity. All the strains were nonhemolytic or nonmucinolytic. The highest antimicrobial activity was observed in several strains (SML41, SML63, SML76, and SML60) against common mastitis-causing pathogens, namely, E. coli ATCC25922, Staphylococcus aureus ATCC25923, Enterococcus faecalis NCDC114, Streptococcus agalactiae NCDC208, and Enterococcus faecium NCDC124. The coaggregation efficacy of SML20 with S. aureus was the highest (67.69±1.21%), while SML41 showed the highest (69.75±0.29%) coaggregation efficacy with E. faecalis NCDC114 and SML63 (68.078±0.26) with S. agalactiae NCDC208. Overall, seven distinct lactic acid bacterial clusters were identified by cluster analysis of the phylogenetic tree as follows: Enterococcus hirae (1), Limosilactobacillus reuteri (1), Pediococcus acidilactici (4), Weissella confusa (11), Lactobacillus helveticus (3), Limosilactobacillus balticus (2), and Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus (1). The Lactobacillus helveticus SML41, Lactobacillus helveticus SML60, Weissella confusa SML61, Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus SML63, Weissella confusa SML64, and Pediococcus acidilactici SML76 isolates were found to possess the most desirable characteristics of potential probiotics based on principal component analysis (PCA). Therefore, the strains chosen in the current investigation demonstrated techno-functional characteristics that rendered them appropriate for probiotic use to treat and prevent intramammary infections in dairy cattle in a sustainable manner.

The gastric digestion behavior of different commercial Stage 1 infant formulae (for 0-6 months) with different formulation backgrounds was investigated using an in vitro dynamic infant human gastric simulator (iHGS). The microstructural arrangements of the protein and lipid, colloidal stability and protein hydrolysis during digestion were elucidated. During gastric digestion, casein-dominant formulations showed a higher extent of aggregation due to their high proportion of casein micelles that underwent coagulation upon acidification and via the action of pepsin. The extensive protein coagulation/curd formation in casein-dominant infant formulae slowed the rate of protein hydrolysis and resulted in the retention of caseins in the iHGS for longer times. Confocal micrographs showed that oil droplets were entrapped in the curd particles of casein-dominant infant formulae, which consequently slowed the gastric emptying of lipids. Conversely, whey-dominant formulations showed a lower degree of protein aggregation that resulted in faster protein hydrolysis and rapid protein and lipid emptying from the iHGS. It was also revealed that whey-dominant infant formulae in the presence of biopolymers increased the viscosity of gastric chyme and induced the flocculation of oil droplets. This altered the rate of protein hydrolysis and emptying of lipids. Correlation analyses depicted the overall kinetics of gastric emptying of macronutrients during digestion and comprised two stages: (i) driven by the continuous stomach emptying and (ii) influenced by aggregation and coalescence indices. The present study highlights the similarities and differences in the digestion behaviors of commercial infant formulae based on important ingredients such as types of proteins and biopolymers, regardless of the formulation or processing histories.

Physicochemical properties of fibres can strongly impact gastric processes such as emptying and sieving. This study evaluated the influence of particle size of insoluble fibres, and gelation of soluble fibres when added to insoluble fibres, on gastric emptying of digesta phases from the proximal and distal stomach of pigs. Twenty-four boars (51.6 ± 4.90 kg) were assigned to one of four diets, containing either 150 g/kg coarse or finely milled wheat straw (median particle area of 5.4 vs 0.3 mm2), or 270 g/kg wheat bran without or with the addition of 100 g/kg low-methylated pectin. Tracers were used to quantify the mean retention time (MRT) of digesta liquids (Co-EDTA), fine solids (TiO2), and fibrous particles (Chromium-mordanted fibres). For all diets, digesta pH was lower in the distal stomach than in the proximal stomach (-1.1 - 2.1 units; P < 0.05). In the proximal stomach, particle size reduction of straw tended to decrease digesta pH (-0.8 units; P = 0.072), reduced the MRT of fine solids (-117 min; P = 0.009) and the separation between fine solids and liquids (-88 min; P = 0.030). When particle size of straw was reduced, the MRT of liquids was no longer greater in the proximal stomach compared with the distal stomach (P > 0.10), while in both regions, the MRT of fibrous particles (-213 - 238 min; P < 0.05) and the difference between fibrous particles and fine solids were reduced (-96 - 181 min; P < 0.05). Accordingly, sieving of nutrients, such as starch and non-starch polysaccharides was reduced. In the proximal stomach, the greater water holding capacity and resistance to deformation conferred by the addition of pectin decreased the MRT of fine solids (-138 min; P = 0.003), and fibrous particles (-227 min; P < 0.001), reducing the difference between fine solids and liquids (-148 min; P < 0.001), and between fibrous particles and fine solids (-89 min; P < 0.001). In the distal stomach, pectin addition reduced the MRT of fibrous particles (-203 min; P = 0.007), and the difference between fibrous particles and fine solids (-154 min; P < 0.001). Concomitantly, sieving of nutrients across stomach regions was reduced. In conclusion, particle size reduction of straw and pectin addition accelerated the emptying of fine and coarse solids, and reduced sieving of digesta phases and nutrients in the proximal and distal stomach of pigs.

Enteral Nutrition (EN) is used for the dietary management of patients requiring tube feed and who are at risk of disease related malnutrition. Previously, EN with a dairy-dominant p4 protein blend (DD-P4: 20% soy, 20% pea, 25% casein and 35% whey) was shown to not coagulate in the stomach, increase gastric emptying rate and reduce gastric residual volume compared to EN with casein-dominant protein blends (CD; 80% casein and 20% whey), which is relevant for upper gastrointestinal tolerance. In line with the EAT-Lancet report, a new plant-dominant protein blend (PD-P4: 46% soy, 32% pea, 16% casein and 6% whey) was developed. Coagulating properties of PD-P4 are compared to DD-P4 and dairy proteins in protein solutions as well as in EN matrices, using a semi-dynamic in vitro gastric model simulating adult conditions, followed by solid particle (> 0.25 mm) separation using analytical sieving. Sieve retentates and filtrates were assayed for weight, dry matter, and protein content where possible. Whey protein, PD-P4 and DD-P4 protein solutions as well as PD-P4 and DD-P4 EN variants had minimal total particle weights. In contrast, casein protein solution coagulation amounted to ∼ 21 % of its initial wet weight, containing ∼ 51 % of its initial protein content, and CD EN coagulation amounted to 21 %- 45 % of the initial wet weight, containing 59-65 % of the initial protein content. EN with the new PD-P4 blend can be considered non-coagulating after in-vitro gastric digestion, similar to the DD-P4 blend. This was independent of energy density, protein content, and the presence of dietary fiber. EN with a non-coagulating plant-dominant protein blend might support upper gastrointestinal tolerance and promote the worldwide protein transition.

Despite progress in genetic and molecular research, which has opened up a myriad of targeted therapeutic possibilities, the compromised solubility and absorption profile of therapeutic entities restrict their passage across lipid barriers compromising efficacy. Consequently, nanoemulsions accrued significance as futuristic, safe, and effective lipid-based drug delivery systems due to their inherent array of physicochemical properties and provide exquisite bioavailability, reduced toxicity, and improved solubility of hydrophobic entities based on size and surface area. However, a pronounced gap exists in understanding and addressing challenges that arise during design and development of nanoemulsions. In this context, we have attempted to reconsider overlooked aspects of nanoemulsion design, offering insight into its commercial viability.

Nitrites are food additives used in meatfor their bacteriological, technological and sensory properties.However, they are suspected to be involved in the formation of various mutagenic nitroso compounds (NOCs).With a view to reducing the use of nitrite in meat products to improve the healthiness thereof, the formation of NOCs was studied during dynamic in vitro digestion ofcooked and recooked meats preparedwith various levels of nitrite. Residual nitrite and nitrate and NOCs were evaluated in the gastric and ileal compartments.In the absence of added nitrite, basalnitrosation and nitrosylation were detected, probably due to the oxidation of ammonium salts present in the gastric fluid. Nitrosamines, nitrosyl heme and nitrosothiols displayed different kinetics of formation and degradation,reflecting a possible transfer of nitric oxide from one substrate to another. A protective effect of nitrite on lipid oxidation was also observed during digestion.

Cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) are increasingly recognized for their potential in various applications, including packaging, cosmetics, and biomedical engineering. Due to their gelation properties influenced by pH and ionic strength, CNC could impact gastric emptying and satiety, beneficial for managing obesity and diabetes. This study investigated the gastric emptying of CNC (4 % and 8 %, w/w) in comparison with sodium alginate (2 %, w/w) and pectin (2 %, w/w), exploring the effect of divalent cations (Ca2+ and Mg2+) using a dynamic gastric digestion model. CNC, in the presence of Ca2+ and Mg2+, formed a high-viscosity gel network under gastric conditions, leading to delayed gastric emptying. While alginate formed strong gels with Ca2+, it did not significantly delay gastric emptying due to the poor water-holding capacity of its gel network. Pectin showed minimal impact on gastric emptying. Among the treatments, the half-time (t1/2) of gastric emptying for 8 % CNC with Ca2+ was observed to be the longest at 215.4 ± 23.7 min, compared to the shortest times observed with pectin at 15.1 ± 1.4 min. The results suggest that different mechanisms are involved in the gastric emptying effect of different dietary fibers, and CNC is more effective than alginate and pectin assisting in promoting gastric retention and aiding in the management of body weight. This study also introduced a novel application of the dynamic gastric digestion model for estimating digestion energy expenditure, providing insights into the impact of dietary fiber on gastric emptying and satiety enhancement.

The digestion behavior of a food bolus comprising bread particles in the presence of gastric peristalsis remains poorly understood. This study systematically investigated the effect of bread type on in vitro gastric digestion behavior using a human gastric digestion simulator (GDS) that is capable of quantitatively simulating gastric peristalsis. A food bolus consisting of 60 g of bread (white bread, bagel, German bread, French bread, or croissant), 15 mL of a simulated salivary fluid, and 240 mL of a simulated gastric fluid was used for gastric digestion in vitro using the GDS for 3 h at 37 °C. Direct observation of the gastric digestion behavior in the GDS vessel demonstrated that the structure and composition of breads considerably influenced the physical digestion processes of bread particles. These processes include their fracture, rubbing, disintegration, swelling owing to the penetration of gastric fluid, and release of fat from their surface. Fluorescence microscopy enabled an improved understanding of the variations in the microstructure and major component distribution of the breads during the gastric digestion in vitro. The results showed how the different breads influenced gastric digestibility in vitro through quantitative gastric peristalsis. The GDS can also be applicable to studying gastric digestibility in vitro of other types of bread.

To date, the majority of in vitro or ex vivo fish gastrointestinal research has been conducted under unrealistic conditions. In a living fish, ionic conditions, as well as levels of ammonia, pH, HCO3- and PCO2 differ considerably between the different regions of the gastrointestinal tract. These factors also differ from those of the saline often used in gut research. Furthermore, the oxygen gradient from the serosa to the gut lumen is rarely considered: in contrast to the serosa, the lumen is a hypoxic/anoxic environment. In addition, the gut microbiome plays a significant role in gut physiology, increasing the complexity of the in vivo gut, but replicating the microbial community for in vitro studies is exceptionally difficult. However, there are ways in which we can begin to overcome these challenges. Firstly, the luminal chemistry and PO2 in each gut compartment must be carefully considered. Secondly, although microbiological culture techniques are improving, we must learn how to maintain the microbiome diversity seen in vivo. Finally, for ex vivo studies, developing mucosal (luminal) solutions that more closely mimic the in vivo conditions will better replicate physiological processes. Within the field of mammalian gut physiology, great advances in 'gut-on-chip' devices are providing the tools to better replicate in vivo conditions; adopting and adapting this technology may assist in fish gut research initiatives. This Commentary aims to make fish gut physiologists aware of the various issues in replicating the in vivo conditions and identifies solutions as well as those areas that require further improvement.

The stomach, a central organ in the Gastrointestinal (GI) tract, regulates the processing of ingested food through gastric motility and emptying. Understanding the stomach function is crucial for treating gastric disorders. Experimental studies in this field often face difficulties due to limitations and invasiveness of available techniques and ethical concerns. To counter this, researchers resort to computational and numerical methods. However, existing computational studies often isolate one aspect of the stomach function while neglecting the rest and employ computationally expensive methods. This paper proposes a novel cost-efficient multi-compartmental model, offering a comprehensive insight into gastric function at an organ level, thus presenting a promising alternative. The proposed approach divides the spatial geometry of the stomach into four compartments: Proximal/Middle/Terminal antrum and Pyloric sphincter. Each compartment is characterized by a set of ordinary differential equations (ODEs) with respect to time to characterize the stomach function. Electrophysiology is represented by simplified equations reflecting the "slow wave behavior" of Interstitial Cells of Cajal (ICC) and Smooth Muscle Cells (SMC) in the stomach wall. An electro-mechanical coupling model translates SMC "slow waves" into smooth muscle contractions. Muscle contractions induce peristalsis, affecting gastric fluid flow velocity and subsequent emptying when the pyloric sphincter is open. Contraction of the pyloric sphincter initiates a retrograde flow jet at the terminal antrum, modeled by a circular liquid jet flow equation. The results from the proposed model for a healthy human stomach were compared with experimental and computational studies on electrophysiology, muscle tissue mechanics, and fluid behavior during gastric emptying. These findings revealed that each "ICC" slow wave corresponded to a muscle contraction due to electro-mechanical coupling behavior. The rate of gastric emptying and mixing efficiency decreased with increasing viscosity of gastric liquid but remained relatively unchanged with gastric liquid density variations. Utilizing different ODE solvers in MATLAB, the model was solved, with ode15s demonstrating the fastest computation time, simulating 180 s of real-time stomach response in just 2.7 s. This multi-compartmental model signifies a promising advancement in understanding gastric function, providing a cost-effective and comprehensive approach to study complex interactions within the stomach and test innovative therapies like neuromodulation for treating gastric disorders.

The gut-brain axis plays a pivotal role in the finely tuned orchestration of food intake, where both homeostatic and hedonic processes collaboratively control our dietary decisions. This interplay involves the transmission of mechanical and chemical signals from the gastrointestinal tract to the appetite centers in the brain, conveying information on meal arrival, quantity, and chemical composition. These signals are processed in the brain eventually leading to the sensation of satiety and the termination of a meal. However, the regulation of food intake and appetite extends beyond the realms of pure physiological need. Hedonic mechanisms, including sensory perception (i.e., through sight, smell, and taste), habitual behaviors, and psychological factors, exert profound influences on food intake. Drawing from studies in animal models and human research, this comprehensive review summarizes the physiological mechanisms that underlie the gut-brain axis and its interplay with the reward network in the regulation of appetite and satiety. The recent advancements in neuroimaging techniques, with a focus on human studies that enable investigation of the neural mechanisms underpinning appetite regulation are discussed. Furthermore, this review explores therapeutic/pharmacological strategies that hold the potential for controlling food intake.

Dosing conditions (type and amount of accompanying fluid, the type of food, the time of administration, and dosage form modifications such as crushing tablets) are critical and affect the performance of oral dosage forms in the gastrointestinal tract and thus bioavailability. Because older adults are the primary users of medications and are more susceptible to adverse effects, it is important to understand how they take their medications in order to reduce risks and increase benefits of the pharmacotherapy. The aim of the study was to investigate the real-life drug intake behaviour in geriatric patients and older adults and discuss their influence on drug absorption after oral administration. The data from two settings home vs. hospital and genders women vs. men were presented. A questionnaire study was performed among people aged at least 65 years from two settings (hospital vs. home), recruited mostly from community pharmacies and a regional hospital in Mecklenburg - Western Pomerania. The obtained data demonstrates that older adults and geriatric patients take their medications in the same way regardless of the setting and gender. There were no significant differences. Interviewed participants were mostly adherent to the doctor's recommendations and mostly took their medications in the same way every day. Medications are most commonly taken with a small (100 mL) or large (200 mL) glass of noncarbonated water, after food (during or after breakfast 64 % of intakes in the morning and during or after dinner 81 % of intakes in the evening). Meal usually consisted of bread, either with jam or honey (breakfast), or ham and cheese (dinner). All reported dosage form modifications were made to tablets. In almost all cases it was splitting the tablet, which was performed due to doctor's indication.

Rheological properties of gastric contents depend on the food ingested, and on the volume and composition of secretions from the host, which may vary. This study investigates the impact of saliva regular incorporation in the stomach after a meal on the rheological properties of gastric contents, considering two levels of salivary flow (low = 0.5 and high = 1.5 mL/min). In vitro chymes were obtained by mixing sour cream, simulated gastric fluid, two different volumes of oral fluid (at-rest human saliva, SSF for Simulated Salivary Fluid or water) and adjusting pH at 3. Chymes samples were characterized at 37°C for their particle size and rheological properties. Overall, particle size distribution was not different between samples: incorporating a larger volume of saliva resulted in more heterogeneity, but the surface area moment D[3,2] and volume moment D[4,3] did not differ significantly with the oral fluid type. Shear viscosity of chyme samples was higher when saliva was incorporated, in comparison with water or SSF. In addition, as shown from data extracted atγ ̇ $$ \dot{\gamma} $$  = 20 s-1 the higher the fluid volume the lower the shear viscosity, which is attributed to a dilution effect. However, this dilution effect was attenuated in the case of saliva, most likely due to its composition in organic compounds (e.g., mucins) contributing to the rheological properties of this biological fluid. In these in vitro conditions, both saliva and the salivation rate had a significant but slight impact on the rheological properties of gastric contents (of the order of 1-5 mPa s atγ ̇ $$ \dot{\gamma} $$  = 20 s-1).

The human stomach is a complex organ. Its role is to degrade food particles by using mechanical forces and chemical reactions in order to release nutrients. All ingested items, including our nutrition, should first pass through the stomach, making it arguably the most crucial segment in the gastrointestinal tract. Computational and mathematical modeling of the stomach is an emerging field of biomechanics where several complex phenomena, such as solid mechanics of the gastric wall, gastric electrophysiology, and fluid mechanics of the digesta need to be addressed. Developing a meshfree comprehensive algorithm for solving the nervous stomach model that enables analysing the relationships between these phenomena remains one of the most significant challenges in biomechanics. This research dedicates to study the dynamics of nervous stomach model governed by a mathematical representation depending on three categories viz. Tension (T), Food (F) and Medicine (M), i.e. TFM model. In this regard, a machine learning paradigm, namely POLYnomial WinOwed with Gaussian (PolyWOG) Wavelet Neural Network (PWNN) model has been implemented for handling the non-linear TFM models. We compared the obtained outcomes of present work with results of a well-known numerical computing paradigm and an existing wavelet neural algorithm. Also, we have done statistical assessment studies at different testing points, which reveal that the proposed architecture is effective and accurate.

Encapsulation technologies have achieved encouraging results improving the stability, bioaccessibility and absorption of bioactive compounds post-consumption. There is a bulk of published research on the gastrointestinal behavior of encapsulated bioactive food materials alone using in vitro and in vivo digestion models, but an aspect often overlooked is the impact of the food structure, which is much more complex to unravel and still not well understood. This review focuses on discussing the recent findings in the application of encapsulated bioactive components in fabricated food matrices. Studies have suggested that the integration of encapsulated bioactive compounds has been proven to have an impact on the physicochemical characteristics of the finished product in addition to the protective effect of encapsulation on the fortified bioactive compound. These products containing bioactive compounds undergo further structural reorganization during digestion, impacting the release and emptying rates of fortified bioactive compounds. Thus, by manipulation of various food structures and matrices, the release and delivery of these bioactive compounds can be altered. This knowledge provides new opportunities for designing specialized foods for specific populations.

The cereal fibre β-glucan reduces postprandial glycaemia, however, the underlying mechanisms are not fully understood. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the acute effect of a β-glucan-enriched oat bread on gastric emptying half-time (T1/2), gastric emptying lag phase (Tlag), and gastric emptying rate (GER), and the secretion of glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) as potential means to influence postprandial glycaemia.

A randomised crossover trial was conducted in 22 healthy adults (age 24.6 ± 3.1 years, BMI 23.1 ± 2.7 kg/m2) receiving 25 g available carbohydrates from a β-glucan-enriched oat bread or a control whole-wheat bread at two non-consecutive days. T1/2, Tlag, and GER were determined based on ultrasound measures of the cross-sectional gastric antrum area in the fasting state and 15, 30, 45, 60, 90, and 120 min postprandially. Capillary glucose, serum insulin, and plasma GLP-1 concentrations were measured at the same time points.

A biphasic pattern of gastric emptying with a distinct Tlag before the commencement of emptying was observed in most subjects for both bread types. While no differences in GER were evident (p = 0.562), consumption of the oat bread significantly increased T1/2 by 18 min and Tlag by 14 min compared with the whole-wheat bread (p = 0.005 and p = 0.010, respectively). In addition, the oat bread significantly reduced iAUC2h for glucose and insulin responses compared with the whole-wheat bread (p = 0.001 and p < 0.001, respectively). There were no significant differences in GLP-1 response between the two breads (p = 0.892).

The increased T1/2 and Tlag could offer a potential mechanism for the observed attenuation of postprandial glycaemia and insulinemia after consumption of the β-glucan-enriched oat bread compared with the whole-wheat bread.

 The study is registered at clinicaltrails.gov (NCT04571866).

We present the case of a 69 years old man who was hit by a car while crossing the road. A CT scan of the skull and brain showed fracture of the left occipital bone, bilateral hemispheric subarachnoid hemorrhage, right frontal-temporal-parietal subdural hematoma with a shift of midline structures of 18 mm and complete obliteration of the third ventricle. He showed signs of anisocoria, absence of mobility of all 4 limbs and was immediately intubated and admitted to intensive care. The neurosurgeon was immediately consulted. He underwent drainage of subdural hematoma and two decompressive craniotomies, but died 15 days after the initial trauma. At autopsy, the stomach was full of a greenish poltaceous material. This gave us vital information in reconducting the actual brain death of the man to the immediacy of the investment, helping in the process of ruling out any possible profiles of professional liability.

There is limited knowledge regarding digestion and absorption of nutrients after cooked marinated meat is ingested. Most of the previous studies on food gastric digestion have focused on chemical digestion and did not reflect upon physical digestion driven by peristalsis. In the present study, we examined the effects of marinating beef in lemon juice on gastric digestibility using a human gastric digestion simulator (GDS) that mimics peristaltic motion called antral contraction waves.

Beef thigh slices were marinated in 100% lemon juice for 1 h and then grilled; an image of a stained tissue sample revealed that muscle tissue contraction (i.e. that usually occurs upon cooking) was suppressed. The measurement of physical properties using a rheometer and texture analyzer showed that the meat marinated in lemon juice had a soft texture. In vitro digestion experiments using the GDS revealed that the extent of both physical digestion driven by peristalsis and chemical digestion catalyzed by digestive enzymes was enhanced by the lemon juice marinade.

The results of the present study suggest that marinating beef in lemon juice affects nutrient digestibility. An integrated evaluation of tissue structure, physical properties and GDS digestion to analyze meat digestion would enhance our understanding of the effects of seasoning and cooking methods on meat. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effect of food viscosity on the dissolution rate of a drug. There are two types of viscosity, macroviscosity and microviscosity. Macroviscosity affects the diffusion layer thickness, whereas microviscosity affects the molecular diffusion coefficient. The mass transfer coefficient (kc) in the intrinsic dissolution rate (IDR) depends on the viscosity (η) as kc ∝ ηa (a is an exponent on η). In theory, for rotating flow over a disk, if a thickener increases only macroviscosity, a = -1/6, and if it increases both macroviscosity and microviscosity equally, a = -7/6.

Benzocaine was used as a model drug. Hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC) and methylcellulose (MC) were employed as control thickeners that increase only macroviscosity. Sucrose was employed as a control thickener for both macroviscosity and microviscosity. The FDA breakfast homogenate (BFH) was diluted with distilled water or 1 mM HCl with/without pepsin digestion. The IDR value was measured by the paddle-over-disk method.

The η value of 30% BFH distilled water was 209 mPa∙s, about 300 times higher than distilled water. It was further increased by HCl (430 mPa∙s), and reduced by pepsin digestion (35 mPa∙s). The kc value was little affected by BFH (a = 0.00 to -0.09), slightly less than those in HPC (a = -0.19) and MC (a = -0.21). Sucrose decreased the kc value more significantly (a = -0.70).

The IDR and kc values of benzocaine were little affected by BFH, suggesting that BFH increased only macroviscosity.

Top-class athletes have optimized their athletic performance largely through adequate training, nutrition, recovery, and sleep. A key component of sports nutrition is the utilization of nutritional ergogenic aids, which may provide a small but significant increase in athletic performance. Over the last decade, there has been an exponential increase in the consumption of nutritional ergogenic aids, where over 80% of young athletes report using at least one nutritional ergogenic aid for training and/or competition. Accordingly, due to their extensive use, there is a growing need for strong scientific investigations validating or invalidating the efficacy of novel nutritional ergogenic aids. Notably, an overview of the physiological considerations that play key roles in determining ergogenic efficacy is currently lacking. Therefore, in this brief review, we discuss important physiological considerations that contribute to ergogenic efficacy for nutritional ergogenic aids that are orally ingested including (1) the impact of first pass metabolism, (2) rises in systemic concentrations, and (3) interactions with the target tissue. In addition, we explore mouth rinsing as an alternate route of ergogenic efficacy that bypasses the physiological hurdles of first pass metabolism via direct stimulation of the central nervous system. Moreover, we provide real-world examples and discuss several practical factors that can alter the efficacy of nutritional ergogenic aids including human variability, dosing protocols, training status, sex differences, and the placebo effect. Taking these physiological considerations into account will strengthen the quality and impact of the literature regarding the efficacy of potential ergogenic aids for top-class athletes.

The complex mechanics of the gastric wall facilitates the main digestive tasks of the stomach. However, the interplay between the mechanical properties of the stomach, its microstructure, and its vital functions is not yet fully understood. Importantly, the pig animal model is widely used in biomedical research for preliminary or ethically prohibited studies of the human digestion system. Therefore, this study aims to thoroughly characterize the mechanical behavior and microstructure of the porcine stomach. For this purpose, multiple quasi-static mechanical tests were carried out with three different loading modes, i.e., planar biaxial extension, radial compression, and simple shear. Stress-relaxation tests complemented the quasi-static experiments to evaluate the deformation and strain-dependent viscoelastic properties. Each experiment was conducted on specimens of the complete stomach wall and two separate layers, mucosa and muscularis, from each of the three gastric regions, i.e., fundus, body, and antrum. The significant preconditioning effects and the considerable regional and layer-specific differences in the tissue response were analyzed. Furthermore, the mechanical experiments were complemented with histology to examine the influence of the microstructural composition on the macrostructural mechanical response and vice versa. Importantly, the shear tests showed lower stresses in the complete wall compared to the single layers which the loose network of submucosal collagen might explain. Also, the stratum arrangement of the muscularis might explain mechanical anisotropy during tensile tests. This study shows that gastric tissue is characterized by a highly heterogeneous microstructure with regional variations in layer composition reflecting not only functional differences but also diverse mechanical behavior. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: Unfortunately, only few experimental data on gastric tissue are available for an adequate material parameter and model estimation. The present study therefore combines layer- and region-specific stomach wall mechanics obtained under multiple loading conditions with histological insights into the heterogeneous microstructure. On the one hand, the extensive data sets of this study expand our understanding of the interplay between gastric mechanics, motility and functionality, which could help to identify and treat associated pathologies. On the other hand, such data sets are of high relevance for the constitutive modeling of stomach tissue, and its application in the field of medical engineering, e.g., in the development of surgical staplers and the improvement of bariatric surgical interventions.

Gastrointestinal symptoms after drinking milk are often attributed to lactose intolerance or cow's milk allergy. However, some individuals without either condition still report gastrointestinal symptoms after drinking milk. This may be caused by gastric emptying (GE) rate or gastric protein coagulation. This study aimed to compare GE rate and protein coagulation after milk consumption between individuals reporting gastrointestinal symptoms and those without symptoms using a novel gastric MRI approach.

Thirty women were included in this case-control study, of whom 15 reported gastrointestinal symptoms after drinking milk and 15 were controls. Participants underwent gastric MRI before and up to 90 min after consumption of 250 mL cow's milk. Gastric content volume and image texture of the stomach contents were used to determine GE and changes in the degree of coagulation.

GE half-time did not differ between the groups (gastrointestinal symptom group 66 ± 18 min; control group 61 ± 14 min, p = 0.845). The gastrointestinal symptom group reported symptoms from 30 min onwards and rated pain highest at 90 min. The control group reported no symptoms. Image texture analyses showed a significantly higher percentage of coagulum and lower percentage of liquid in the group in the GI symptom group (MD 11%, 95% CI [3.9, 17], p = 0.003). In vitro data suggests that pH and proteolytic enzyme activity influence the coagulum structure.

Gastric milk coagulation and emptied fraction of stomach content may differ between individuals experiencing symptoms after milk consumption, possibly due to differences in pH and proteolytic enzyme activity.

Current feed formulation and evaluation practices rely on static values for the nutritional value of feed ingredients and assume additivity. Hereby, the complex interplay among nutrients in the diet and the highly dynamic digestive processes are ignored. Nutrient digestion kinetics and diet × animal interactions should be acknowledged to improve future predictions of the nutritional value of complex diets. Therefore, an in silico nutrient-based mechanistic digestion model for growing pigs was developed: "SNAPIG" (Simulating Nutrient digestion and Absorption kinetics in PIGs). Aiming to predict the rate and extent of nutrient absorption from diets varying in ingredient composition and physicochemical properties, the model represents digestion kinetics of ingested protein, starch, fat, and non-starch polysaccharides, through passage, hydrolysis, absorption, and endogenous secretions of nutrients along the stomach, proximal small intestine, distal small intestine, and caecum + colon. Input variables are nutrient intake and the physicochemical properties (i.e. solubility, and rate and extent of degradability). Data on the rate and extent of starch and protein hydrolysis of different ingredients per digestive segment were derived from in vitro assays. Passage of digesta from the stomach was modelled as a function of feed intake level, dietary nutrient solubility and diet viscosity. Model evaluation included testing against independent data from in vivo studies on nutrient appearance in (portal) blood of growing pigs. When simulating diets varying in physicochemical properties and nutrient source, SNAPIG can explain variation in glucose absorption kinetics (postprandial time of peak, TOP: 20-100 min observed vs 25-98 min predicted), and predict variation in the extent of ileal protein and fat digestion (root mean square prediction errors (RMSPE) = 12 and 16%, disturbance error = 12 and 86%, and concordance correlation coefficient = 0.34 and 0.27). For amino acid absorption, the observed variation in postprandial TOP (61 ± 11 min) was poorly predicted despite accurate mean predictions (58 ± 34 min). Recalibrating protein digestion and amino acid absorption kinetics require data on net-portal nutrient appearance, combined with observations on digestion kinetics, in pigs fed diets varying in ingredient composition. Currently, SNAPIG can be used to forecast the time and extent of nutrient digestion and absorption when simulating diets varying in ingredient and nutrient composition. It enhances our quantitative understanding of nutrient digestion kinetics and identifies knowledge gaps in this field of research. Already useful as research tool, SNAPIG can be coupled with a postabsorptive metabolism model to predict the effects of dietary and feeding-strategies on the pig's growth response.

Controlling starch digestion in high glycaemic index staple foods such as white rice is of interest as it has been associated with reduced risk for conditions such as obesity and type-2 diabetes mellitus. Addition of hydrocolloids has been proposed to reduce the rate of post-prandial glucose by controlling the rate of starch hydrolysis. In this work, the potential of a range of hydrocolloids to modify starch digestibility when added (at 1 % maximum concentration) during cooking of white rice was first investigated. Low acyl gellan gum (LAG) showed the highest potential (in-vitro estimated Glycaemic Index reduced by about 20 %, from 94 in the control to 78 in the LAG rice) and was investigated further. While the grains of rice control and rice with LAG appeared similar, SEM images revealed a gel-like layer (a few micrometers in thickness) on the surface of the treated samples. Addition of LAG appeared to also have an effect on the breakdown of a simulated cm-sized bolus. During gastric digestion, bolus breakdown of the rice control was completed after 30 min, while the rice LAG bolus appeared intact after 1 h of observation. This was attributed to strengthening of the LAG gel in the acidic environment of the stomach. During intestinal digestion, rice samples containing 1 % LAG appeared to be less susceptible to breakdown when seen under a microscope and in environmental SEM, while they showed larger rice particle aggregates, compared to rice control. Overall, LAG showed potential to control starch digestion kinetics of white rice with a mechanism that may involve formation of a protective layer on the rice grains (um) that reduces bolus break down (cm) and enzymatic hydrolysis (nm). Outcomes of this work will be used to identify conditions for further relevant in-vitro and in-vivo investigations.

Previously, it has been indicated that oat polar lipids included in a liquid meal may have the potential to beneficially modulate various cardiometabolic variables. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of oat polar lipids in a solid food matrix on acute and second meal glucose tolerance, blood lipids, and concentrations of gut-derived hormones. The oat polar lipids were consumed at breakfast and effects on the biomarkers were investigated in the postprandial period and following a standardized lunch. Twenty young, healthy subjects consumed in total four different breakfast meals in a crossover study design. The breakfasts consisted of 1. White wheat bread (WWB) with an added 7.5 g of oat polar lipids (PLL); 2. WWB with an added 15 g of oat polar lipids (PLH); 3. WWB with and added 16.6 g of rapeseed oil (RSO) as a representative of commonly consumed oils; and 4. WWB consumed alone, included as a reference. All products with added lipids contained equivalent amounts of fat (16.6 g) and available carbohydrates (50 g). Rapeseed oil was added to the oat polar lipid meals to equal 16.6 g of total fat. The standardized lunch was composed of WWB and meatballs and was served 3.5 h after the breakfast. Test variables (blood glucose, serum insulin, triglyceride (TG), free fatty acids (FFA), ghrelin, GLP-1, PYY, and GIP) were measured at fasting and repeatedly during the 5.5 h after ingestion of the breakfast. After breakfast, PLH substantially lowered postprandial glucose and insulin responses (iAUC 0-120 min) compared with RSO and WWB (p < 0.05). Furthermore, a reduced glycaemic response to lunch (210-330 min) was observed following the PLH breakfast compared to all of the other breakfasts served (p < 0.05). Oat polar lipids (PLH) significantly reduced TG and ghrelin and increased circulating gut hormones GLP-1 and PYY compared to RSO (p < 0.05). The results show that exchanging part of the dietary lipids with oat polar lipids has the potential to improve postprandial blood glucose regulation and gut hormones and thus may have a preventive effect against type 2 diabetes.

Chewing ability has a strong effect on food digestion. However, little is known about the relationship between the food mastication degree and the subsequent gastric emptying. This study was to explore the effects of individual chewing ability (strong and weak) on the in vivo oral processing characteristics and in vitro dynamic gastrointestinal starch hydrolysis of three types of rice (japonica rice, indica rice and waxy rice). Results showed that the swallowable bolus in the weak chewing group had larger holes and a looser microstructure with more small rice particles, while the strong chewing ones obtained a bolus with higher saliva content (up to 28%) and starch hydrolysis degree (up to 13.55%). Moreover, the gastric retention and starch hydrolysis of the strong chewing ability group were higher in the artificial gastric dynamic system (AGDS). The indica rice particles with the higher degree of fragmentation contacted enzymes easier and hydrolyzed quicker, thus emptying through the stomach faster (81.76%). However, the oral chewing properties of rice mainly influenced the starch digestion in the stomach and the initial stage of the small intestine (∼5 min). This study suggested that the chewing ability and rice variety can influence the bolus properties, which in turn affected the gastric emptying and the degree of starch hydrolysis during digestion.

Polyphenols have received considerable attention for their promotive effects on colonic health. However, polyphenols are mostly sensitive to harsh gastrointestinal environments, thus, must be protected. It is necessary to design and develop a colon-targeted delivery system to improve the stability, colon-targeting and bioavailability of polyphenols. This paper mainly introduces research on colon-targeted controlled release of polyphenols. The physiological features affecting the dissolution, release and absorption of polyphenol-loaded delivery systems in the colon are first discussed. Simultaneously, the types of colon-targeted carriers with different release mechanisms are described, and colon-targeting assessment models that have been studied so far and their advantages and limitations are summarized. Based on the current research on polyphenols colon-targeting, outlook and reflections are proposed, with the goal of inspiring strategic development of new colon-targeted therapeutics to ensure that the polyphenols reach the colon with complete bioactivity.

The results of the study of the physicochemical properties of the high-molecular-weight soluble and insoluble components of nectarine cell walls obtained by fruit treatment under conditions that modulate of gastric digestion are presented. Homogenized nectarine fruits were sequentially treated by natural saliva and simulated gastric fluid (SGF) at pH 1.8 and 3.0. The isolated polysaccharides were compared with polysaccharides obtained by sequential extraction of nectarine fruit with cold, hot, and acidified water, solutions of ammonium oxalate and sodium carbonate. As a result, high-molecular-weight water-soluble pectic polysaccharides, weakly bound in the cell wall, were dissolved in the simulated gastric fluid, regardless of pH. Homogalacturonan (HG) and rhamnogalacturonan-I (RG-I) were identified in all pectins. It was shown that their quantity and ability to form highly viscous solutions determine high values of the rheological characteristics of the nectarine mixture formed under simulated gastric conditions. The modifications occurring with the insoluble components under the influence of acidity of SGF were importance. They determined difference in the physicochemical properties of both the insoluble fibres and the nectarine mixtures.

Extracting valuable information from the overflowing data is a critical yet challenging task. Dealing with high volumes of biometric data, which are often unstructured, nonstatic, and ambiguous, requires extensive computer resources and data specialists. Emerging neuromorphic computing technologies that mimic the data processing properties of biological neural networks offer a promising solution for handling overflowing data. Here, the development of an electrolyte-gated organic transistor featuring a selective transition from short-term to long-term plasticity of the biological synapse is presented. The memory behaviors of the synaptic device were precisely modulated by restricting ion penetration through an organic channel via photochemical reactions of the cross-linking molecules. Furthermore, the applicability of the memory-controlled synaptic device was verified by constructing a reconfigurable synaptic logic gate for implementing a medical algorithm without further weight-update process. Last, the presented neuromorphic device demonstrated feasibility to handle biometric information with various update periods and perform health care tasks.

Oral delivery is the most commonly used route of drug administration owing to good patient compliance. However, the gastrointestinal (GI) tract contains multiple physiological barriers that limit the absorption efficiency of conventional passive delivery systems resulting in a low drug concentration reaching the diseased sites. Micro/nanorobots can convert energy to self-propulsive force, providing a novel platform to actively overcome GI tract barriers for noninvasive drug delivery and treatment.

In this review, we first describe the microenvironments and barriers in the different compartments of the GI tract. Afterward, the applications of micro/nanorobots to overcome GI tract barriers for active drug delivery are highlighted and discussed. Finally, we summarize and discuss the challenges and future prospects of micro/nanorobots for further clinical applications.

Micro/nanorobots with the ability to autonomously propel themselves and to load, transport, and release payloads on demand are ideal carriers for active oral drug delivery. Although there are many challenges to be addressed, micro/nanorobots have great potential to introduce a new era of drug delivery for precision therapy.

Zearalenone (ZEN, ZEA) contamination in various foods and feeds is a significant global problem. Similar to deoxynivalenol (DON) and other mycotoxins, ZEN in feed mainly enters the body of animals through absorption in the small intestine, resulting in estrogen-like toxicity. In this study, the gene encoding Oxa, a ZEN-degrading enzyme isolated from Acinetobacter SM04, was cloned into Lactobacillus acidophilus ATCC4356, a parthenogenic anaerobic gut probiotic, and the 38 kDa sized Oxa protein was expressed to detoxify ZEN intestinally. The transformed strain L. acidophilus pMG-Oxa acquired the capacity to degrade ZEN, with a degradation rate of 42.95% at 12 h (initial amount: 20 μg/mL). The probiotic properties of L. acidophilus pMG-Oxa (e.g., acid tolerance, bile salt tolerance, and adhesion properties) were not affected by the insertion and intracellular expression of Oxa. Considering the low amount of Oxa expressed by L. acidophilus pMG-Oxa and the damage to enzyme activity by digestive juices, Oxa was immobilized with 3.5% sodium alginate, 3.0% chitosan, and 0.2 M CaCl₂ to improve the ZEN degradation efficiency (from 42.95% to 48.65%) and protect it from digestive juices. The activity of immobilized Oxa was 32-41% higher than that of the free crude enzyme at different temperatures (20-80 °C), pH values (2.0-12.0), storage conditions (4 °C and 25 °C), and gastrointestinal simulated digestion conditions. Accordingly, immobilized Oxa could be resistant to adverse environmental conditions. Owing to the colonization, efficient degradation performance, and probiotic functionality of L. acidophilus, it is an ideal host for detoxifying residual ZEN in vivo, demonstrating great potential for application in the feed industry.

The joint work of the stomach and the small intestine plays a fundamental role in human digestion. In the stomach, food is turned into a semi-fluid mixture that is slowly released into the small intestine, where most enzymatic reactions occur, and nutrients are absorbed as they become available. This whole process is closely related to glucose homeostasis, mainly because of the appearance of glucose in the portal system and the energetic expenditure of the process itself. The current phenomenological-based model describes such effects of the digestive process on blood glucose concentration. It considers enzymatic and mechanical transformations, energetic expenditure, and the impact of macro-nutrients, fiber, and water on overall digestion and glucose absorption. The model estimates the rate of glucose appearance in the portal vein and is intended to be further integrated into existing models for other human organs and used in model-based systems such as an artificial pancreas with automated insulin delivery.