• Antibacterial activity
• Biosynthesis
• Characterization
• Cytotoxicity
• Nanoemulsion
• ZnO-NPs

• Zinc Oxide/pharmacology
• Zinc Oxide/chemistry
• Streptomyces/metabolism
• Streptomyces/chemistry
• Anti-Bacterial Agents/pharmacology
• Anti-Bacterial Agents/chemistry
• Microbial Sensitivity Tests
• Green Chemistry Technology/methods
• Humans
• Drug Resistance, Multiple, Bacterial/drug effects
• Metal Nanoparticles/chemistry
• Nanoparticles/chemistry
• Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus/drug effects
• Klebsiella pneumoniae/drug effects

• Animals
• Burns
• Meta-analysis
• Photodynamic therapy

• Animals
• Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor A
• Photochemotherapy/methods
• Photosensitizing Agents/therapeutic use
• Photosensitizing Agents/pharmacology
• Burns/drug therapy
• Wound Healing

• Burn infections
• Macrophage polarization
• Multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii
• Polymyxin B-targeted liposomal photosensitizer
• Wound healing

• Humans
• Photosensitizing Agents/therapeutic use
• Polymyxin B/pharmacology
• Polymyxin B/therapeutic use
• Communicable Diseases
• Wound Healing
• Acinetobacter baumannii
• Inflammation
• Liposomes
• Macrophages

• Melitten/pharmacology
• Acinetobacter baumannii/genetics
• Anti-Bacterial Agents/pharmacology
• Biofilms
• Photochemotherapy

Acinetobacter baumannii (A. baumannii) is one of the ESKAPE organisms and has the competency to build biofilms. These biofilms account for the most nosocomial infections all over the world. This review reflects on the various physicochemical and environmental factors such as adhesion, pili expression, growth surfaces, drug-resistant genes, and virulence factors that profoundly affect its resistant forte. Emerging drug-resistant issues and limitations to newer drugs are other factors affecting the hospital environment. Here, we discuss newer and alternative methods that can significantly enhance the susceptibility to Acinetobacter spp. Many new antibiotics are under trials, such as GSK-3342830, The Cefiderocol (S-649266), Fimsbactin, and similar. On the other hand, we can also see the impact of traditional medicine and the secondary metabolites of these natural products’ application in searching for new treatments. The field of nanoparticles has demonstrated effective antimicrobial actions and has exhibited encouraging results in the field of nanomedicine. The use of various phages such as vWUPSU and phage ISTD as an alternative treatment for its specificity and effectiveness is being investigated. Cathelicidins obtained synthetically or from natural sources can effectively produce antimicrobial activity in the micromolar range. Radioimmunotherapy and photodynamic therapy have boundless prospects if explored as a therapeutic antimicrobial strategy.

Acinetobacter species is one of the most prevailing nosocomial pathogens with a potent ability to develop antimicrobial resistance. It commonly causes infections where there is a prolonged utilization of medical devices such as CSF shunts, catheters, endotracheal tubes, and similar. There are several strains of Acinetobacter (A) species (spp), among which the majority are pathogenic to humans, but A. baumannii are entirely resistant to several clinically available antibiotics. The crucial mechanism that renders them a multidrug-resistant strain is their potent ability to synthesize biofilms. Biofilms provide ample opportunity for the microorganisms to withstand the harsh environment and further cause chronic infections. Several studies have enumerated multiple physiological and virulence factors responsible for the production and maintenance of biofilms. To further enhance our understanding of this pathogen, in this review, we discuss its taxonomy, pathogenesis, current treatment options, global resistance rates, mechanisms of its resistance against various groups of antimicrobials, and future therapeutics.

• Acinetobacter baumannii
• Light-emitting diode
• Photochemotherapy
• Radachlorin

• 20A0088 Konyang University

• Adjuvants
• Antimicrobial Photoinactivation
• Biofilm
• Gram-negative
• Porphyrin

• Acinetobacter baumannii
• Anti-Bacterial Agents/chemistry
• Anti-Bacterial Agents/pharmacology
• Biofilms
• Cations/chemistry
• Photosensitizing Agents/pharmacology
• Porphyrins/chemistry
• Porphyrins/pharmacology
• Water

• Bacteria
• Burn
• Fungi
• Photodynamic therapy
• Virus
• injury

Most skin infections, including those complicating burns, are polymicrobial involving multiple causative bacteria. Add to this the fact that many of these organisms may be antibiotic-resistant, and a simple skin lesion or burn could soon become life-threatening. Membrane-acting cationic peptides from Gram-negative bacteriophage lysins can potentially aid in addressing the urgent need for alternative therapeutics. Such peptides natively constitute an amphipathic region within the structural composition of these lysins and function to permit outer membrane permeabilization in Gram-negative bacteria when added externally. This consequently allows the lysin to access and degrade the peptidoglycan substrate, resulting in rapid hypotonic lysis and bacterial death. When separated from the lysin, some of these cationic peptides kill sensitive bacteria more effectively than the native molecule via both outer and cytoplasmic membrane disruption. In this study, we evaluated the antibacterial properties of a modified cationic peptide from the broad-acting lysin PlyPa01. The peptide, termed PaP1, exhibited potent in vitro bactericidal activity toward numerous high priority Gram-positive and Gram-negative pathogens, including all the antibiotic-resistant ESKAPE pathogens. Both planktonic and biofilm-state bacteria were sensitive to the peptide, and results from time-kill assays revealed PaP1 kills bacteria on contact. The peptide was bactericidal over a wide temperature and pH range and could withstand autoclaving without loss of activity. However, high salt concentrations and complex matrices were found to be largely inhibitory, limiting its use to topical applications. Importantly, unlike other membrane-acting antimicrobials, PaP1 lacked cytotoxicity toward human cells. Results from a murine burn wound infection model using methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus or multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa validated the in vivo antibacterial efficacy of PaP1. In these studies, the peptide enhanced the potency of topical antibiotics used clinically for treating chronic wound infections. Despite the necessity for additional preclinical drug development, the collective data from our study support PaP1 as a potential broad-spectrum monotherapy or adjunctive therapy for the topical treatment of polymicrobial infections and provide a foundation for engineering future lysin-derived peptides with improved antibacterial properties.

• Rockefeller University

• Alternative approaches
• Antimicrobial blue light therapy (aBL)
• Antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT)
• Bacteria
• Bioluminescent models
• Biomedical research
• Drug monitoring
• Photosensitizers
• Resistance

• Anti-Bacterial Agents/pharmacology
• Anti-Infective Agents/pharmacology
• Bacteria
• Immunologic Tests
• Photochemotherapy/methods

• Infection treatment
• Optical waveguides
• Photodynamic therapy
• Phototherapy
• Photothermal therapy

• Communicable Diseases/drug therapy
• Humans
• Low-Level Light Therapy/methods
• Nanoparticle Drug Delivery System/chemistry
• Photochemotherapy/methods
• Photosensitizing Agents/administration & dosage
• Photosensitizing Agents/pharmacology

• R01 AR072731 NIAMS NIH HHS
• R41 DK123949 NIDDK NIH HHS

• Bacteria
• Biofilm
• Fungi
• Inactivation
• Photodynamic disinfection
• Virus

• Animals
• Bacteria/drug effects
• Biofilms/drug effects
• Communicable Disease Control/methods
• Drug Resistance, Microbial/drug effects
• Drug Resistance, Multiple/drug effects
• Fungi/drug effects
• Humans
• Microbial Sensitivity Tests
• Neoplasms/drug therapy
• Photochemotherapy
• Photosensitizing Agents/pharmacology
• Photosensitizing Agents/therapeutic use

• UIDB/00313/2020 fundação para a ciência e a tecnologia
• PTDC/QUI-OUT/27996/2017 (DUALPI) fundação para a ciência e a tecnologia
• PD/BD/143123/2019 fundação para a ciência e a tecnologia

• Antibiotics
• Bacterial resistance
• Opportunistic infection
• Photosensitizer

• Aloe-emodin
• Bioluminescent MDR A. baumannii
• Burn-infected mice
• Photodynamic treatment efficacy
• Safety assessment

• ALA
• chlorins
• photodynamic inactivation
• photosensitizer
• phthalocyanines
• porphyrins
• protoporphyrin-IX
• reactive oxygen species
• skin
• tissue regeneration
• wound healing

• Animals
• Humans
• Photochemotherapy/methods
• Photosensitizing Agents/chemistry
• Photosensitizing Agents/pharmacology
• Protoporphyrins/chemistry
• Protoporphyrins/pharmacology
• Re-Epithelialization
• Skin/drug effects
• Skin/metabolism
• Skin Diseases, Infectious/therapy

• REF. 048-88-ARH/2018 Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia
• CEECIND/00430/2017 Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia

• Artificial skin
• Blue light
• Curcumin
• Photochemotherapy
• Wound healing

Immunocompromised patients are predisposed to chronically infected wounds. Especially ulcers in the dorsal region often experience secondary polymicrobial infections. However, current wound infection models mostly use single-strain bacteria. To mimic clinically occurring infections caused by fecal contamination in immunocompromised/immobile patients, which differ significantly from single-strain infections, the present study aimed at the establishment of a new mouse model using infection by fecal bacteria. Dorsal circular excision wounds in immunosuppressed mice were infected with fecal slurry solution in several dilutions up to 1:8,000. Impact of immunosuppressor, bacterial load and timing on development of wound infections was investigated. Wounds were analyzed by scoring, 3D imaging and swab analyses. Autofluorescence imaging was not successful. Dose-finding of cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppression was necessary for establishment of bacterial wound infections. Infection with fecal slurry diluted 1:166 to 1:400 induced significantly delayed wound healing (p < 0.05) without systemic reactions. Swab analyses post-infection matched the initial polymicrobial suspension. The customized wound score confirmed significant differences between the groups (p < 0.05). Here we report the establishment of a simple, new mouse model for clinically occurring wound infections by fecal bacteria and the evaluation of appropriate wound analysis methods. In the future, this model will provide a suitable tool for the investigation of complex microbiological interactions and evaluation of new therapeutic approaches.

We previously reported that the 14-day case fatality rate (CFR) in patients with carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii (CRAB) bacteremia varied between infecting clones. Here, we evaluated the in vitro and in vivo fitness of CRAB blood isolates belonging to clones with low CFR (< 32% 14-day mortality) and high CFR (65% 14-day mortality). Fitness was measured in vitro using a growth curve assay and in vivo using murine thigh muscle and septicemia models of infection. Our sample included 38 CRAB isolates belonging to two clones with low CFR (international lineage (IL)-II-rep-1, n = 13 and IL-79, n = 6) and two clones with high CFR (IL-III, n = 9 and IL-II-rep-2, n = 10). In in vitro growth curves, mean lag time, generation time and maximal growth varied between clones but could not discriminate between the high and low CFR clones. In the in vivo models, bacterial burdens were higher in mice infected with high CFR clones than in those infected with low CFR clones: in thigh muscle, 8.78 ± 0.25 vs. 7.53 ± 0.25 log₁₀CFU/g, p < 0.001; in infected spleen, 5.53 ± 0.38 vs. 3.71 ± 0.35 log₁₀CFU/g, p < 0.001. The thigh muscle and septicemia model results were closely correlated (r = 0.93, p < 0.01). These results suggest that in vivo but not in vitro fitness is associated with high CFR clones.

• 14-day mortality
• carbepenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii (CRAB)
• case fatality rate
• fitness
• in vitro growth curve assay
• in vivo murine infection model
• outcome

The batericidal effects of antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT), using methylene blue as a photosensitizer and pulsed red LED light for activation, were tested in various environments in vitro and in a wound model in mice infected with a fecal bacterial suspension.

• Acinetobacter baumannii
• disinfection mechanism
• p-n Cu2O/TiO2 heterojunction
• photocatalytic inactivation of bacteria
• supercritical solvothermal preparation

• antibiotic resistance
• antimicrobial stewardship
• biofilm
• cross-resistance
• non-antibiotic interventions
• wound infection

Acinetobacter baumannii is a Gram negative opportunistic pathogen that has demonstrated a significant insurgence in the prevalence of infections over recent decades. With only a limited number of “traditional” virulence factors, the mechanisms underlying the success of this pathogen remain of great interest. Major advances have been made in the tools, reagents, and models to study A. baumannii pathogenesis, and this has resulted in a substantial increase in knowledge. This article provides a comprehensive review of the bacterial virulence factors, the host immune responses, and animal models applicable for the study of this important human pathogen. Collating the most recent evidence characterizing bacterial virulence factors, their cellular targets and genetic regulation, we have encompassed numerous aspects important to the success of this pathogen, including membrane proteins and cell surface adaptations promoting immune evasion, mechanisms for nutrient acquisition and community interactions. The role of innate and adaptive immune responses is reviewed and areas of paucity in our understanding are highlighted. Finally, with the vast expansion of available animal models over recent years, we have evaluated those suitable for use in the study of Acinetobacter disease, discussing their advantages and limitations.

• A. baumannii
• animal models
• bacterial virulence factors
• host-pathogen interactions
• immune response

The worldwide emergence of extensively drug resistant (XDR) Acinetobacter baumannii has reduced the number of antimicrobials that exert high bactericidal activity against this pathogen. This is the reason why many scientists are focusing on investigations concerning novel non-antibiotic strategies such as antimicrobial photodynamic inactivation (aPDI) or the use of antimicrobial blue light (aBL). Therefore, the aim of the current study was to screen for antimicrobial synergies of routinely used antibiotics and phototherapies, including both aPDI involving exogenously administered photosensitizing molecules, namely, rose bengal, and aBL, involving excitation of endogenously produced photoactive compounds. The synergy testing was performed in accordance with antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) standards, including various methodological approaches, i.e., antibiotic diffusion tests, checkerboard assays, CFU counting and the evaluation of postantibiotic effects (PAEs). We report that combining antimicrobials and aPDI/aBL treatment led to a new strategy that overcomes drug resistance in XDR A. baumannii, rendering this pathogen susceptible to various categories of antibiotics. Sublethal aPDI/aBL treatment in the presence of sub-MIC levels of antimicrobials effectively killed A. baumannii expressing drug resistance to studied antibiotics when treated with only antibiotic therapy. The susceptibility of XDR A. baumannii to a range of antibiotics was enhanced following sublethal aPDI/aBL. Furthermore, 3′-(p-aminophenyl) fluorescein (APF) testing indicated that significantly increased reactive oxygen species production upon combined treatment could explain the observed synergistic activity. This result represents a conclusive example of the synergistic activity between photodynamic inactivation and clinically used antimicrobials leading to effective eradication of XDR A. baumannii isolates and indicates a potent novel therapeutic approach.

• Acinetobacter baumannii
• antimicrobial blue light
• antimicrobials
• photodynamic inactivation
• rose bengal
• synergy

Tetracyclines (including demeclocycline, DMCT, or doxycycline, DOTC) represent a class of dual-action antibacterial compounds, which can act as antibiotics in the dark, and also as photosensitizers under illumination with blue or UVA light. It is known that tetracyclines are taken up inside bacterial cells where they bind to ribosomes. In the present study, we investigated the photochemical mechanism: Type 1 (hydroxyl radicals); Type 2 (singlet oxygen); or Type 3 (oxygen independent). Moreover, we asked whether addition of potassium iodide (KI) could potentiate the aPDI activity of tetracyclines. High concentrations of KI (200–400 mM) strongly potentiated (up to 5 logs of extra killing) light-mediated killing of Gram-negative Escherichia coli or Gram-positive MRSA (although the latter was somewhat less susceptible). KI potentiation was still apparent after a washing step showing that the iodide could penetrate the E. coli cells where the tetracycline had bound. When cells were added to the tetracycline + KI mixture after light, killing was observed in the case of E. coli showing formation of free molecular iodine. Addition of azide quenched the formation of iodine but not hydrogen peroxide. DMCT but not DOTC iodinated tyrosine. Both E. coli and MRSA could be killed by tetracyclines plus light in the absence of oxygen and this killing was not quenched by azide. A mouse model of a superficial wound infection caused by bioluminescent E. coli could be treated by topical application of DMCT and blue light and bacterial regrowth did not occur owing to the continued anti biotic activity of the tetracycline.

• Ministarstvo Prosvete, Nauke i Tehnološkog Razvoja

Catechin is a flavan-3-ol, a derivative of flavans, with four phenolic hydroxyl groups, which exhibits a wide range of physiological properties. Chromatographic analyses were employed to examine the effects of blue light irradiation on the changes of catechin hydrate in an alkaline condition. In particular, the detection of a superoxide anion radical (O₂•⁻), a reactive oxygen species (ROS), and the inactivation of Acinetobacter baumannii (A. baumannii)—including a carbapenem-resistant A. baumannii (CRAB)—was investigated during the photoreaction of catechin hydrate. Following basification with blue light irradiation, the transparent solution of catechin hydrate turned yellowish, and a chromogenic catechin dimer was separated and identified as a proanthocyanidin. Adding ascorbic acid during the photolytic treatment of catechin hydrate decreased the dimer formation, suggesting that ascorbic acid can suppress the photosensitive oxidation of catechin. When catechin hydrate was irradiated by blue light in an alkaline solution, O₂•⁻ was produced via photosensitized oxidation, enhancing the inactivation of A. baumannii and CRAB. The present findings on the photon-induced oxidation of catechin hydrate provides a safe practice for the inactivation of environmental microorganisms.

• CRAB
• ascorbic acid
• blue light
• catechin
• inactivation

• Acinetobacter baumannii/drug effects
• Acinetobacter baumannii/metabolism
• Ascorbic Acid/chemistry
• Carbapenems/pharmacology
• Catechin/chemistry
• Catechin/pharmacology
• Drug Resistance, Neoplasm/drug effects
• Microbial Sensitivity Tests
• Microbial Viability/drug effects
• Molecular Structure
• Photosensitizing Agents/chemistry
• Photosensitizing Agents/pharmacology
• Reactive Oxygen Species/metabolism

Acinetobacter baumannii causes difficult-to-treat nosocomial infections, which often lead to morbidity due to the development of antimicrobial drug resistance and expression of virulence genes. Data regarding the association of resistance to colistin, a last treatment option, and the virulence gene expression of A. baumannii is scarce.

We evaluated the MLVA genotype, antimicrobial resistance, and biofilm formation of 100 A. baumannii isolates from burn patients, and further compared the in vitro and in vivo expression of four virulence genes among five colistin-resistant A. baumannii (Cst-R-AB) isolates. Five Cst-R-AB isolates were tested; one from the present study, and four isolated previously.

Our results showed that reduced expression of recA, along with increased in vivo expression of lpsB, dnaK, and blsA; are associated with colistin resistance among Cst-R-AB isolates. Differences in virulence gene expressions among Cst-R-AB isolates, may in part explain common discrepant in vitro vs. in vivo susceptibility data during treatment of infections caused by Cst-R-AB.

Our findings highlight the intricate relationship between colistin-resistance and virulence among A. baumannii isolates, and underscore the importance of examining the interactions between virulence and antimicrobial resistance toward efforts to control the spread of multidrug-resistant A. baumannii (MDR-AB) isolates, and also to reduce disease severity in burn patients with MDR-AB infection.

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12941-018-0277-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

• Acinetobacter baumannii
• Colistin resistance
• Murine burn model
• Virulence gene expression

• antimicrobial photodynamic inactivation
• antimicrobials
• photoinactivation
• photosensitizers
• synergy

• antibiotic resistance
• antimicrobial blue light
• antimicrobial photodynamic therapy
• bacterium
• disinfection
• fungus
• germicidal UV irradiation
• light-based therapy
• virus.

• Anti-Infective Agents/therapeutic use
• Drug Resistance, Microbial/drug effects
• Humans
• Patents as Topic
• Photochemotherapy/instrumentation
• Photochemotherapy/methods
• Phototherapy/instrumentation
• Phototherapy/methods
• Ultraviolet Therapy/instrumentation
• Ultraviolet Therapy/methods

• R01 AI050875 NIAID NIH HHS
• R01 AI123312 NIAID NIH HHS
• R21 AI109172 NIAID NIH HHS
• R21 AI121700 NIAID NIH HHS

A critical perspective on (metallo)porphyrins in security-related applications: the past, present and future of explosives detection, CBRN defense, and beyond.

Traditional methods of localizing and quantifying the presence of pathogenic microorganisms in living experimental animal models of infections have mostly relied on sacrificing the animals, dissociating the tissue and counting the number of colony forming units. However, the discovery of several varieties of the light producing enzyme, luciferase, and the genetic engineering of bacteria, fungi, parasites and mice to make them emit light, either after administration of the luciferase substrate, or in the case of the bacterial lux operon without any exogenous substrate, has provided a new alternative. Dedicated bioluminescence imaging (BLI) cameras can record the light emitted from living animals in real time allowing non-invasive, longitudinal monitoring of the anatomical location and growth of infectious microorganisms as measured by strength of the BLI signal. BLI technology has been used to follow bacterial infections in traumatic skin wounds and burns, osteomyelitis, infections in intestines, Mycobacterial infections, otitis media, lung infections, biofilm and endodontic infections and meningitis. Fungi that have been engineered to be bioluminescent have been used to study infections caused by yeasts (Candida) and by filamentous fungi. Parasitic infections caused by malaria, Leishmania, trypanosomes and toxoplasma have all been monitored by BLI. Viruses such as vaccinia, herpes simplex, hepatitis B and C and influenza, have been studied using BLI. This rapidly growing technology is expected to continue to provide much useful information, while drastically reducing the numbers of animals needed in experimental studies.

• Bioluminescence imaging
• bacteria
• fungi
• genetic engineering
• infectious disease pathogenesis
• luciferase
• parasites
• viruses

• Antimicrobial photodynamic inactivation
• Rose Bengal
• fullerenes
• methylene blue
• photochemical mechanism
• potassium iodide
• titanium dioxide photocatalysis

• Pseudomonas aeruginosa
• blue light treatment
• elastases
• hemolysins
• lipases
• motility
• photoinactivation
• proteases
• virulence factors

• Anti-Bacterial Agents/pharmacology
• Bacterial Proteins/antagonists & inhibitors
• Bacterial Proteins/radiation effects
• Color
• Humans
• Light
• Metalloendopeptidases/antagonists & inhibitors
• Metalloendopeptidases/radiation effects
• Microbial Sensitivity Tests
• Pancreatic Elastase/radiation effects
• Pseudomonas Infections/microbiology
• Pseudomonas Infections/therapy
• Pseudomonas aeruginosa/drug effects
• Pseudomonas aeruginosa/radiation effects
• Virulence/radiation effects
• Virulence Factors/antagonists & inhibitors
• Virulence Factors/radiation effects

• Pseudomonas aeruginosa mouse infection
• antimicrobial photodynamic inactivation
• potassium iodide
• reactive iodine species
• rose bengal
• singlet oxygen

Photodynamic antimicrobial chemotherapy (PACT), as a novel and effective therapeutic modality to eradicate drug resistant bacteria without provoking multidrug resistance, has attracted increasing attention. This study examined the antimicrobial efficacy of the novel cationic amino acid-porphyrin conjugate 4I with four lysine groups against two different clinical isolated strains (drug sensitive and multidrug resistant) of the Acinetobacter baumannii species and its toxicity on murine dermal fibroblasts in vitro, as well as the therapeutic effect of PACT on acute, potentially lethal multidrug resistant strain excisional wound infections in vivo. The PACT protocol exposed 4I to illumination, exhibiting high antimicrobial efficacy on two different strains due to a high yield of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and non-selectivity to microorganisms. The photoinactivation effects of 4I against two different strains were dose-dependent. At 3.9 μM and 7.8 μM, PACT induced 6 log units of inactivation of sensitive and multidrug resistant strains. In contrast, 4I alone and illumination alone treatments had no visibly antimicrobial effect. Moreover, cytotoxicity tests revealed the great safety of the photosensitizer 4I in mice. In the in vivo study, we found 4I-mediated PACT was not only able to kill bacteria but also accelerated wound recovery. Compared with non-treated mice, over 2.89 log reduction of multidrug resistant Acinetobacter baumannii strain was reached in PACT treat mice at 24 h post-treatment. These results imply that 4I-mediated PACT therapy is an effective and safe alternative to conventional antibiotic therapy and has clinical potential for superficial drug-resistant bacterial infections.

• Acinetobacter baumannii/drug effects
• Acinetobacter baumannii/pathogenicity
• Acinetobacter baumannii/radiation effects
• Amino Acids/administration & dosage
• Amino Acids/chemistry
• Animals
• Anti-Infective Agents/administration & dosage
• Anti-Infective Agents/chemistry
• Drug Resistance, Bacterial/drug effects
• Humans
• Inflammation/microbiology
• Inflammation/therapy
• Light
• Mice
• Photochemotherapy
• Porphyrins/administration & dosage
• Porphyrins/chemistry

• Major Projects of the National Health and Family Planning Commission of China
• Tianjin Natural Science Foundation of China
• Basic Research Program of Logistics University of PAP

• antibiotics
• dendrimers
• drug delivery
• nanoparticles
• porphyrinoids