Current status and recent progress of nanomaterials in transcatheter arterial chemoembolization therapy for hepatocellular carcinoma

Table 1 Comparison of different nanomaterials: Liposomes, micelles, metal nanoparticles, nanogels, and metal-organic frameworks

Nanomaterial	Drug loading capacity	Targeting ability	Biocompatibility	Imaging capability
Liposomes	High, capable of encapsulating both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs	Can be enhanced by ligand modification for active targeting	Excellent, highly biodegradable	Low, requires fluorescent probes or MRI contrast agents
Micelles	Moderate, mainly for hydrophobic drug delivery	Surface modification can improve targeting ability	Good, often composed of biodegradable polymers	Low, requires fluorescent labelling or radioactive probes
Nanogels	High, capable of encapsulating macromolecular drugs	Functionalization can enhance targeting	Good, hydrogel structure improves biocompatibility	Low, requires incorporation of contrast agents
MNPs	Low, primarily used as drug carriers	Targeting can be enhanced by magnetic properties or surface modification	Generally low, requires surface functionalization for improved biocompatibility	High, applicable for CT, MRI, and photoacoustic imaging
MOFs	Extremely high, with tunable pore structures	Targeting can be enhanced by ligand functionalization	Dependent on composition; some MOFs have low biocompatibility	High, can serve as CT/MRI/fluorescence imaging probes

CT: Computed tomography; MRI: Magnetic resonance imaging; MOFs: Metal-organic frameworks; MNPs: Metal nanoparticles.

Table 2 Quantitative data on nanomaterials in transcatheter arterial chemoembolization treatment for hepatocellular carcinoma

Ref.	Nanomaterial	Drug	Drug loading	Drug release	Therapeutic effect
[60]	p(N-isopropyl-acrylamide-co-butyl methylacrylate) nanogel	DOX	NA	24 hours: 50-70 wt (pH = 6.8, pH 7.4), 97 wt (pH= 5.3)	The tumour growth rate of VX2 tumour by TACE therapy of IBi-D dispersions were only 91%
[61]	iron/barium ferrite/carbon-coated iron nanocrystal composites	EPI	Saturation value of the carrier system was approximately 25.5 mg/g	Accumulation of more than 20% of drugs on day 20	The group (EPI + materials + magnetic hyperthermia) showed a stronger antitumor effect
[62]	Fe3O4@PMO-Cy5.5	DOX	27.65%	48 hours: 16% (pH 7.4), 39% (pH 5.5)	1 mg/mL (nanoparticle concentration): Death of 74.1% of the HepG2 cells
[63]	pN-KL nanogels	DOX	23.71%	24.2% (pH = 5.0), 20.5% (pH = 6.8), 21.8% (pH = 7.4)	Completely suppressed after 14 days
[64]	BSA NPs	TPZ	NA	12.89% (1 hour), 55.96% (168 hours)	Significant reduction in tumour growth rate
[66]	BSA-CuS NPs	DOX	55.52%	Exposed to 808 nm NIR irradiation, approximately 5% and 25% of total DOX were released at 5 and 24 hours	DOX@BSA-CuS can be efficiently delivered to the HCC tumour site and the DOX drug can be efficiently deposited at tumour tissue
[71]	Fe@EGaIn NP	CA	DL: 2.61% ± 0.01%; EE: 87.19% ± 0.26%	NIR group: 44.99% (0.1 W), 55.88% (1 W)	Excellent therapeutic efficiency was achieved with a tumour growth-inhibiting value of 100% in tumour-bearing rabbits
[72]	pH-DENs	Sorafenib	73.3% ± 2.5%	96 hours: approximately 80% (pH = 6.5), approximately 50% (pH = 7.4)	The pH-DENs triggered sorafenib release in response to acidic extracellular conditions, increasing drug concentration in the culture medium and enhancing therapeutic efficiency against HCC cells
[76]	P@PND nanogels	PT	NA	40 hours: > 80% (pH = 6.5)	The volume ratio of the treated tumours at 14 days to the initial tumour were 07 (Pt-P@PND)
[77]	HmA NPs	DOX	41%	24 hours: > 40% (pH = 4.5 or 6.5), 28.6% (pH = 7.4); 14 days: 83.9% (pH = 4.5), 74% (pH = 6.5), 53.4% (pH = 7.4)	24 hours: Apoptotic HepG2 cells, 28.8%

DOX: Doxorubicin; EPI: Epirubicin; TPZ: Tirapazamine; CA: Calcium alginate; PT: Cisplatin; IBi-D: P(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-butyl methacrylate) nanogel-iodohexanol dispersion; TACE: Transcatheter arterial chemoembolization; PMO: periodic mesoporous organosilica; KL: Kraft lignin; NPs: Nanoparticles; BSA: Bovine serum albumin; CuS: Copper sulfide; HCC: Hepatocellular carcinoma; NIR: Near-infrared; DEN: Drug-eluting nanocomposite; PND: PNIPAM-DEAMEA; NA: Not available.