Multidrug resistance (MDR) is a significant challenge in tumor treatment, severely reducing the effectiveness of anticancer drugs and contributing to high mortality rates. This article overviews the various factors involved in the development of MDR, such as changes in drug targets, increased DNA repair mechanisms, and the impact of the tumor microenvironment. It also emphasizes the potential of mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) as a drug delivery system to combat MDR. With their unique characteristics-such as a high surface area, adjustable pore sizes, and the ability to be functionalized for targeted delivery-MSNs serve as excellent carriers for the simultaneous delivery of chemotherapeutics and siRNAs aimed at reversing resistance pathways. The paper focuses on innovative methods using MSNs for direct intranuclear delivery of their cargos to overcome efflux barrier and improve the effectiveness of combination therapies. This review highlights a promising approach for enhancing cancer treatment outcomes by integrating advanced nanotechnology with traditional therapies, addressing the ongoing challenge of MDR in oncology.

Despite their impact on cancer therapy, limitations such as systemic toxicity and drug resistance are encountered with platinum-based drugs. This study explores the potential of combining PtIV-based NP with carmofur (Car) to address these issues. In this study, platinum nanoparticles (PtNPs) and Car-loaded PtNP (Car@PtNP) were synthesized and their cytotoxic and apoptotic effects on colorectal and breast cancer cells were evaluated. Following characterization of the synthesized NPs by dynamic light scattering, UV-VIS spectroscopy, FTIR, and STEM, it was found that the average size of PtNPs was 55.42 nm and the size increased to approximately 186.06 nm upon synthesis of Car@PtNP. MTT assays demonstrated that Car@PtNP exhibited higher levels of cellular toxicity than carmofur alone. While it significantly decreased cell viability in both colon and breast cancer cells, its toxicity to HUVEC cells was minimal. Treatment of MCF-7 and HCT116 cells with 50 µg ml-1of free Car resulted in cell viabilities of 65.2% and 76.93%, respectively, whereas the viability of cells treated with Car@PtNP decreased to 49.60% and 55.47%. Flow cytometric analysis confirmed that apoptosis was increased in healthy HCT116 cells treated with Car@PtNP, with a marked increase in both early and late apoptotic cell populations. Furthermore, these results were confirmed by Hoescht and Rhodamin123 immunofluorescence staining, and significant mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptotic morphological changes were observed in treated cells. The findings underscore the promise of Car@PtNP as a novel chemotherapeutic approach, integrating the benefits of PtIVcomplexes and Car to enhance antitumor efficacy while mitigating the drawbacks of conventional platinum-based therapies.

Carbon dots (CDs) are small-sized, spherical nanoparticles presenting amorphous carbon cores with nanocrystalline regions of a graphitic structure. They show unique properties such as high aqueous solubility, robust chemical inertness, and non-toxicity and can be manufactured at a relatively low cost. They are also well known for outstanding fluorescence tunability and resistance to photobleaching. Together, these properties boost their potential to act as drug delivery systems (DDSs). This work presents a low-cost synthesis of CDs by upcycling spent coffee grounds (SCGs) and transforming them into value-added products. This synthetic route eliminates the use of highly toxic heavy metals, high energy-consuming reactions and long reaction times, which can improve biocompatibility while benefiting the environment. A series of physico-chemical characterisation techniques demonstrated that these SCG-derived CDs are small-sized nanoparticles with tunable fluorescence. In vitro studies with 120 h of incubation of SCG-derived CDs demonstrated their specific antiproliferative effect on the breast cancer CAL-51 cell line, accompanied by increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Importantly, no impact was observed on healthy breast, kidney, and liver cells. Confocal laser scanning microscopy confirmed the intracellular accumulation of SCG-derived CDs. Furthermore, the drug efflux pumps P-glycoprotein (P-gp) and the breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP) did not impact CD accumulation in the cancer cells.

Cancer remains a critical global issue, marked by its high mortality rates. Despite achieving remarkable progress in cancer treatments, conventional chemotherapeutic drugs face numerous limitations. To this end, nanomaterial-based targeted drug delivery systems have emerged as a hope of promise. In this study, we report the design and development of transferrin (Tf) tethered naphthalene-diimide-based fluorescent organic nanoparticles (NDI-OH-Tf) for targeted delivery of paclitaxel to cancer cells with over expressed transferrin receptors (TfR). Spherical NDI-OH FONPs were fabricated through J-type of aggregation of NDI-OH amphiphiles in a 1:99 (v/v) DMSO-H2O mixture. These NDI-OH FONPs exhibited aggregation induced emission (AIE) at an emission wavelength of λem = 594 nm. The hydroxyl groups on the surface of the NDI-OH FONPs were conjugated with carboxyl groups of transferrin, forming NDI-OH-Tf FONPs. These NDI-OH-Tf FONPs were successfully used for targeted bioimaging and drug delivery to TfR+ cancer cells through ligand receptor interaction between transferrin and TfR. Notably, paclitaxel loaded NDI-OH-Tf exhibited ∼2.9-fold higher efficacy toward TfR+ cancer cells compared to normal cells and ∼3.3-fold higher cytotoxicity than free PTX due to transferrin mediated targeted accumulation of PTX in cancer cells.

Ribonucleic acid (RNA)-based therapies represent a promising class of drugs for the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) due to their ability to modulate gene expression. Therapies leveraging small interfering RNA (siRNA), messenger RNA (mRNA), microRNA (miRNA), and antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) offer various advantages over conventional treatments, including the ability to target specific genetic mutations and the potential for personalized medicine approaches. However, the clinical translation of these therapeutics for the treatment of NSCLC faces challenges in delivery due to their immunogenicity, negative charge, and large size, which can be mitigated with delivery platforms. In this review, we provide a description of the pathophysiology of NSCLC and an overview of RNA-based therapeutics, specifically highlighting their potential application in the treatment of NSCLC. We discuss relevant classes of RNA and their therapeutic potential for NSCLC. We then discuss challenges in delivery and non-viral delivery strategies such as lipid- and polymer-based nanoparticles that have been developed to address these issues in preclinical models. Furthermore, we provide a summary table of clinical trials that leverage RNA therapies for NSCLC [which includes their National Clinical Trial (NCT) numbers] to highlight the current progress in NSCLC. We also discuss how these NSCLC therapies can be integrated with existing treatment modalities to enhance their efficacy and improve patient outcomes. Overall, we aim to highlight non-viral strategies that tackle RNA delivery challenges while showcasing RNA's potential as a next-generation therapy for NSCLC treatment.

Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS) is a devastating autoimmune disease of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) with limited treatment options. Several studies have shown attenuation of the well-characterized GBS preclinical experimental autoimmune neuritis (EAN) model with systemically administered therapeutic compounds via anti-inflammatory or immunomodulatory mechanisms. Despite this, clinical advancement of these findings is limited by dosing that is not translatable to humans or is associated with off-target and toxic effects. This is due, in part, to the blood-nerve barrier (BNB), which restricts access of the circulation to peripheral nerves. However, during acute neuroinflammation, the normally restrictive BNB exhibits increased vascular permeability and enables immune cell infiltration. This may offer a unique window to access the otherwise restricted peripheral nerve microenvironment for therapeutic delivery. Here, we assessed the degree to which BNB permeability and immune cell infiltration over the course of EAN enables accumulation of circulating nanoparticles. We found that at disease stages defined by distinct clinical scores and pathology (onset, effector phase, and peak of EAN severity), intravenously administered small molecules and nanoparticles ranging from 50 to 150 nm can permeate into the endoneurium from the endoneurial vasculature in a size- and stage-dependent manner. This permeation occurs uniformly in both sciatic nerves and in proximal and distal regions of the nerves. We propose that this nerve targeting enabled by pathology serves as a platform by which potential therapies for GBS can be reevaluated and investigated preclinically in nanoparticle delivery systems.

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) has a poor clinical prognosis, where conventional treatment offers therapeutic limitations. Therefore, the current study introduces a first-of-its-kind sorafenib (SOR) nanoemulsion (SNE) loaded with poloxamer-carrageenan nanoemulgel (SPCNEG), a novel dual-functional and natural polymer-based payload system for effective intranasal chemotherapeutic administration. The nanoformulation was developed using carrageenan (a natural gelling agent), poloxamer (a mucoadhesive agent), glyceryl caprate as lipid, and Cremophor EL:PEG 400 blend as surfactant system. The improved biopharmaceutical attributes of developed formulations were confirmed from the release experiments, revealing augmentation in drug release from SNE (84.56 ± 3.78 %) and SPCNEG (68.62 ± 4.11 %) up to 3.41- and 8.12-fold compared to plain SOR. The ex vivo experiments showed a similar enhancement in drug permeation. Moreover, the SNE also showed superior performance on glioma cell lines, as indicated by lower IC50 (2.23 μg/mL) than plain SOR (16.61 μg/mL). The pharmacokinetic study revealed a 2.52- and 3.24-fold increase in SNE and SPCNEG brain concentration, respectively, compared to Soranib®. Additionally, a high correlation was also observed between in vitro drug release and in vivo absorption at prespecified time intervals for developed formulations. In conclusion, the current research promising and non-invasive alternative to existing interventions for enhanced brain targeting potential.

Chemoresistance, a significant challenge in effective cancer treatment needs clear elucidation of the underlying molecular mechanism for the development of novel therapeutic strategies. Alterations in transporter pumps, oncogenes, tumour suppressor genes, mitochondrial function, DNA repair processes, autophagy, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), cancer stemness, epigenetic modifications, and exosome secretion lead to chemoresistance. Despite notable advancements in targeted cancer therapies employing both small molecules and macromolecules success rates remain suboptimal due to adverse effects like drug efflux, target mutation, increased mortality of normal cells, defective apoptosis, etc. This review proposes an advanced nanotechnological technique precisely targeting molecular determinants of chemoresistance which holds promise for enhancing cancer treatment efficacy. Further, the review explores various cancer hallmarks and pathways implicated in chemoresistance, current therapeutic modalities, and their limitations. It advocates the combination of nanoparticle-conjugated conventional drugs and natural compounds to specifically target molecular pathways that can potentially reverse or minimize chemoresistance incidences in cancer patients.

This study demonstrates the development of stimuli-responsive Pickering emulsions stabilized by casein nanoparticles (CNPs) for targeted drug delivery to colorectal cancer cells (CRC). Encapsulation of a fluorescent dye simulates therapeutic delivery, demonstrating biomedical potential. The oil-in-water nanoemulsions stabilized by CNPs function as nanocarriers sensitive to matrix metalloproteinase-7 (MMP-7), an enzyme overexpressed in CRC cells, enabling precise drug release. Emulsions exhibited strong stability due CNPs forming a robust layer at the oil-water interface, enhancing bioavailability and controlled release. Covalent modifications of CNPs with polyethyleneimine (PEI) or polyacrylic acid (PAA), and pH adjustments optimize the zeta potential, improving surface charge and delivery efficiency. Maximal CNP uptake occurred with PAA-modified CNPs (-20 mV), showing superior interaction with CRC cells compared to pristine (-6.7 mV) and PEI-modified (+30.5, +42.1 mV) CNPs. Confocal microscopy and imaging flow cytometry confirmed that CNP-stabilized emulsions enhance CRC inter-localization compared to dispersed CNPs. Nanoemulsions with the highest CNP uptake showed selective interaction with tumor cells, while minimizing oil droplet uptake, driven by nanoscale dimensions and targeted surface interactions. Enzymatic degradation of CNPs by MMP-7 induces phase separation and targeted release. This dual-functional system, leveraging charge modification and enzymatic responsiveness, highlights CNP-stabilized nanoemulsions as a promising CRC-targeted drug delivery platform.

The combination of Ca2+ overload and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production for cancer therapy offers a superior solution to the lack of specificity in traditional antitumor strategies. However, current therapeutic platforms for this strategy are primarily based on non-targeting nanomaterials, leading to undesirable off-target side effects. Additionally, resistance to ROS and apoptosis induced by the hypoxic tumor microenvironment (TME) further limits therapeutic efficiency. Herein, a magnetic microrobot based on living Spirulina Platensis (SP), which is coated with a double layer of Fe3O4 nanoparticles (NPs) and CaCO3 NPs. The microrobots can accumulate in tumor regions under magnetic attraction, which produces a high-Ca2+ environment under the acidic TME and facilitates Ca2+ overload under ultrasound (US) stimulation. Meanwhile, sufficient oxygen (O2) production by photosynthesis helps alleviate hypoxia and promotes in situ ROS production by chlorophyll-mediated photodynamic therapy (PDT), which can coordinate with Ca2+ overload to induce cell apoptosis. With these unique properties, the SP-based microrobots offer a promising microrobotics-based strategy for in situ Ca2+ accumulation and ROS production, contributing to a precise and effective way for cancer treatment.

Targeted radiopharmaceutical therapies (RPTs) have emerged as a promising approach for the precise treatment of various cancers. Delivering ionizing radiation directly to cancer cells while sparing surrounding healthy tissue, radiopharmaceuticals offer enhanced efficacy and reduced toxicity compared to conventional external beam radiation therapy (i.e. photons and electrons).

In the current era of personalized cancer care, the appropriate choice of RPTs for a clinical condition and the specific patient's care needs to be better understood. Several available RPT agents with their respective clinical applicability along with rapidly ongoing research in this field have now given RPTs the ability to lend themselves to a personalized medicine focus. This review provides an overview of recent advancements in RPT, including nuclide selection and development, molecular targeting strategies, radiopharmaceutical development, and clinical applications.

We discuss the underlying principles, challenges, and opportunities for future development. Furthermore, we explore emerging technologies and future directions in the field, highlighting the potential impact on personalized cancer care.

Exploring the role and mechanism of a novel bioorthogonal system using transition metals as catalysts in the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC).

Initially, a catalytic ruthenium (Ru) complex and the substrate alloc-RH 110 were synthesized, followed by the identification of their structures utilizing mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) techniques. The catalytic efficacy of the Ru complex was then assessed using a fluorescence spectrophotometer. Subsequently, employing HepG2 cells as the cellular source, cell-derived vesicles encapsulating the Ru complexes, designated as EVs@Ru, were prepared. The EVs@Ru were characterized by measuring their particle size and Zeta potential, observing morphological features under transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and detecting specific protein expressions via Western blot analysis. Drug loading within the EVs@Ru was quantified using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), and their catalytic efficiency was evaluated. In vitro, the low-activity prodrug alloc-DOX was synthesized and its toxicity, along with the drug concentration in EVs@Ru, was determined. Further, the catalytic cytotoxicity of alloc-DOX against HepG2 cells encapsulated in EVs@Ru was analyzed through microscopic observation, CCK-8 assays, and apoptosis experiments. For in vivo studies, a tumor-bearing mouse model was established using human liver cancer HepG2 cells to observe the antitumor effects. Finally, the primary organs of each group of tumor-bearing mice were assessed for in vivo safety.

ESI-MS and 1H NMR confirmed the accurate structure of Ru complexes and alloc-RH 110. The Ru complexes achieved full catalytic conversion of alloc-RH 110 within 24 hours. EVs and EVs@Ru exhibited particle sizes of ∼116.85 nm and ∼281.88 nm, respectively, with Zeta potentials of ∼-20.86 mV and ∼-25.89 mV, both appearing quasi-circular under TEM. WB analysis verified the presence of vesicle-specific marker proteins in both, confirming their cell-derived nature. ICP-MS determined a drug loading of 21.90 μg/mL for EVs@Ru, with an encapsulation efficiency of ∼24.86%. Fluorescence spectrophotometry demonstrated 100% catalytic efficiency for EVs@Ru. Synthetic alloc-DOX validated by 1H NMR and ESI-MS matched literature data. MTT and CCK-8 assays confirmed low toxicity for alloc-DOX and Ru complexes, setting the experimental drug concentration at 4μM. In vitro, the EVs@Ru+alloc-DOX group exhibited potent HepG2 cell killing and apoptosis. In vivo, this group significantly inhibited tumor growth in tumor-bearing mice, with no observed toxicity to vital organs, indicating good biosafety.

The integration of bio-derived microvesicles (MVs) with transition metal catalysts has resulted in a biologically orthogonal system for efficient Ru complex delivery to tumor sites. This system facilitates controlled release of the Ru complexes, enabling tumor cell elimination. This innovative strategy holds great promise for enhancing tumor immunity and targeted therapeutic approaches.

Cancer is a leading cause of death globally, driven by late diagnoses, aggressive progression, and multidrug resistance (MDR). Advances in nanotechnology are tackling these challenges, paving the way for transformative cancer treatments. Hyaluronic acid (HA)-based nanoparticles (NPs) have emerged as promising platforms due to their biocompatibility, biodegradability, and natural targeting capabilities via CD44 (cluster of differentiation 44) receptors. Functionalizing NPs with HA enhances cellular uptake through CD44, improves pharmacokinetics, tumor localization, and anticancer efficacy while reducing systemic toxicity. This review provides a comprehensive overview of HA-based NPs, highlighting their potential to address limitations in cancer treatment and inspire further innovation. The targeting efficiency of HA-based NPs can be further optimized by integrating passive (e.g., PEGylation), active (e.g., ligand conjugation), and stimuli-responsive mechanisms (e.g., pH, redox, light, enzyme activity, and temperature sensitivity). These NPs also enable therapeutic combinations, such as co-delivery of chemotherapeutics with gene therapies (e.g., siRNA) and integration of photothermal and photodynamic therapies, alongside immune checkpoint inhibitors, amplifying therapeutic synergy. Despite promising preclinical results, challenges such as scalability, stability, long-term safety, ethical and regulatory hurdles, and high costs persist. Nonetheless, HA-based NPs represent a cutting-edge approach, combining biocompatibility, precision targeting, and multimodal functionality to combat cancer effectively, while mitigating side effects.

Effective drug delivery relies on the selection of suitable carriers, which is crucial for protein-based therapeutics such as tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL). One of the key advantages of TRAIL is its ability to selectively induce apoptosis in cancer cells excluding healthy tissues by binding to death receptors DR4 and DR5, which are highly expressed in various cancer cells. Despite this promise, the clinical application of TRAIL has been limited by its short half-life, limited stability, and inefficient delivery to tumor sites. To overcome currently available clinical and engineering approaches, a series of sophisticated strategies is required: (a) the design of biomaterial-mediated carriers for enhanced targeting efficacy, particularly via optimizing selected materials, composition, formulation, and surface modulation. Moreover, (b) development of genetically modified cellular products for augmented TRAIL secretion toward tumor microenvironments and (c) cell surface engineering techniques for TRAIL immobilization onto infusible cell populations are also discussed in the present review. Among these approaches, living cell-based carriers offer the distinct advantage of systemically administered TRAIL-functionalized cells capturing circulating tumor cells in the bloodstream, thereby preventing secondary tumor formation. This review provides insight into the development of novel TRAIL delivery platforms, discusses considerations for clinical translation, and suggests future directions and complementary strategies to advance the field of TRAIL-based cancer therapeutics.

Lenvatinib (LEN), a tyrosine kinase inhibitor, has emerged as a promising therapeutic agent for various solid tumors. Nevertheless, a number of constraints, including diminished bioavailability, incapacity to elicit localized inflammation, and inability to selectively accumulate at the tumor site, may impede the comprehensive exploitation of its versatile tyrosine kinase inhibitory capabilities. In order to achieve targeted delivery of LEN while also reducing its high dose used in conventional therapeutics, nanoformulation approaches can be adopted. The integration of LEN into various nanoformulations, such as nanoparticles, nanocrystals, high density lipoproteins (HDLs), liposomes, and micelles, is discussed, highlighting the advantages of these innovative approaches in a comparative manner; however, given that the current methods of nanoformulation synthesis employ toxic organic solvents and chemicals, there is an imperative need for exploring alternative, environmentally friendly approaches. The multifaceted effects of nanocarriers have rendered them profoundly applicable within the biomedical domain, serving as instrumental entities in various capacities such as vehicles for drug delivery and genetic material, diagnostic agents, facilitators of photothermal therapy, and radiotherapy. However, the scalability of these nanotechnological methodologies must be rigorously investigated and addressed to refine drug delivery mechanisms. This endeavor offers promising prospects for revolutionizing strategies in cancer therapeutics, thereby laying the foundation for future research in scale-up techniques in the pursuit of more effective and less toxic therapies for cancer.

To enhance therapeutic efficacy and achieve controlled drug release for colon cancer therapeutics, this study focuses on developing a hydrocolloid-based, pH-responsive biocompatible nanocarrier. We synthesized sphingomyelin (SM)-loaded zein nanoparticles (SM-LNPs) stabilized using 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide (EDC), leveraging the aromatic interactions of zein to optimize drug encapsulation and release kinetics. In silico molecular docking and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations demonstrated strong intermolecular interactions between zein, SM, and EDC, supporting the formulation's rational design. Comprehensive physicochemical characterization confirmed the stability and structural integrity of SM-LNPs. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) and field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM) analyses revealed a monodispersed, spherical morphology with an optimized particle size suitable for oral drug delivery. In vitro drug release studies indicated a sustained and pH-responsive release profile, with 90.60 % of SM released at pH 6.8, mimicking intestinal conditions. Cell viability assays using HCT 116 colon cancer cells showed that SM-LNPs exhibited significantly enhanced cytotoxicity (41.44 % reduction in cell viability) compared to free SM, confirming their potential for cancer therapeutics. Additionally, pharmacokinetic simulations validated the controlled release and systemic retention of SM, supporting its suitability for oral administration. Our findings demonstrate that SM-LNPs offer a promising drug delivery platform with enhanced stability, pH response release, and improved bioactivity, paving the way for their potential application in colon cancer treatment. This research provides critical insights into nanocarrier design, drug delivery kinetics, and biomaterial-based therapeutic strategies for precision oncology.

Nanomedicine offers fresh approaches for breast cancer treatment, countering traditional limitations. The nanodrug delivery system's precision and biocompatibility hold promise, yet integration hurdles remain. This study reviews nano delivery systems in breast cancer therapy from 2013 to 2023, guiding future research directions.

In this study, we conducted a comprehensive search on Web of Science database (Guilin Medical University purchase edition) and downloaded literature related to the field published between 2013 and 2023. We analyzed these publications using R software, VOSviewer, and CiteSpace software.

This study reviewed 2632 documents, showing a steady publication increase from 2013 to 2023, peaking at 408 in 2022. China, USA, India, and Iran were prominent in publishing. The Chinese Academy of Sciences and Tabriz University of Medical Science were key collaboration centers. Notably, the Journal of Controlled Release and Biomaterials ranked among the top 10 journals for publications and citations, establishing their field representation. Key terms like "breast cancer," "nanoparticles," "drug delivery," "in-vitro," and "delivery" were widely used. Research focused on optimizing drug targeting, utilizing the tumor microenvironment for drug delivery, and improving delivery efficiency.

The nanodrug delivery system, as an innovative drug delivery approach, offers numerous advantages and has garnered global attention from researchers. This study provides an analysis of the status and hotspots in nano delivery systems within the realm of breast cancer therapy, offering valuable insights for future research in this domain.

Conservative anti-cancer treatment represented by chemotherapy and surgery lacks tumor-specificity and could hardly resolve the problems associated with multidrug resistance (MDR) in cancers. Novel therapeutic materials in cancer treatment, such as those with anti-MDR or controllable treatment features, represent a significant trend due to their advantages of high and specific efficacy and timely intervention of cancer progress. In addition to their excellent biocompatibility and specificity, they can be utilized in therapies that require ease of operation, provided they are designed with high detection sensitivity. In this review, we summarize a series of recently developed materials that exhibit these advantages, including immune-enhancing and tumor microenvironment (TME)- responsive materials, and those with integrated therapeutic and imaging capabilities. We also introduce advanced modification approaches that can impart essential targeting functionalities to these materials.

The tumor microenvironment (TME) plays a pivotal role in cancer progression by fostering intricate multicellular crosstalk among cancer cells, stromal cells, and immune cells. This review explores the emerging paradigm of utilizing nanoparticles to disrupt this crosstalk within the TME as a therapeutic strategy. Nanoparticles are engineered with precise physicochemical properties to target specific cell types and deliver therapeutic payloads, thereby inhibiting critical signaling pathways involved in tumor growth, invasion, and metastasis. The mechanisms involved include modulation of the immune response, interference with growth factor signaling, and induction of programmed cell death in cancer cells. Challenges such as biocompatibility, efficient delivery, and potential development of resistance are discussed alongside promising advancements in nanoparticle design. Moving forward, integration of nanoparticle-based therapies with existing treatment modalities holds great potential for enhancing therapeutic efficacy and personalized medicine in cancer therapy.

Cancer is a global health concern. Various therapeutic approaches, including chemotherapy, photodynamic therapy, and immunotherapy, have been developed for cancer treatment. Silica nanoparticles, quantum dots, and metal-organic framework (MOF)-based nanomedicines have gained interest in cancer therapy because of their selective accumulation in tumors via the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect. However, bare nanoparticles face challenges including poor biocompatibility, low stability, limited drug-loading capacity, and rapid clearance by the reticuloendothelial system (RES). Gels with unique three-dimensional network structures formed through various interactions such as covalent and hydrogen bonds are emerging as promising materials for addressing these challenges. Gel hybridization enhances biocompatibility, facilitates controlled drug release, and confers cancer-targeting abilities to nanoparticles. This review discusses gel-nanoparticle hybrid systems for cancer treatment developed in the past five years and analyzes the roles of gels in these systems.

Breast cancer and its lung metastases pose significant threats to women's health worldwide, impacting their quality of life. Although several therapeutic strategies against breast cancer have been developed, they often cause serious side effects due to their high toxicity and low specificity. Therefore, novel therapeutic strategies that offer potent anti-tumor activity with minimal toxicity are urgently needed to combat the threat of breast cancer and lung metastases. Celastrol (Cela), a triterpenoid extracted from Tripterygium wilfordii, exerts anti-tumor effects by inhibiting tumor angiogenesis as well as tumor cell proliferation, invasion, and metastasis. However, its poor solubility and potential for severe organ toxicity hinder its clinical application. Therefore, in this study, we prepared Cela nanocrystals (Cela-NCs), which effectively increased the solubility of Cela and improved its bioavailability. Subsequently, Cela-NCs were encapsulated within the cell membrane (CCM) derived from breast cancer cells to generate CCM/Cela-NCs and leverage the homologous targeting ability of the CCM. Notably, CCM/Cela-NCs showed immune evasion and could homologously target tumor cells. Both in vitro and in vivo, CCM/Cela-NCs could effectively inhibit the growth and metastasis of breast cancer cells. They also exerted minimal hepatotoxicity in mice during treatment. In conclusion, this Cela-based biomimetic strategy that exploits the biological properties of tumor cells offers a new idea for the effective treatment of breast cancer and its lung metastasis.

Sonodynamic therapy (SDT) as an emerging modality for malignant tumors mainly involves in sonosensitizers and low-intensity ultrasound (US), which can safely penetrate the tissue without significant attenuation. SDT not only has the advantages including high precision, non-invasiveness, and minimal side effects, but also overcomes the limitation of low penetration of light to deep tumors. The cytotoxic reactive oxygen species can be produced by the utilization of sonosensitizers combined with US and kill tumor cells. However, the underlying mechanism of SDT has not been elucidated, and its unsatisfactory efficiency retards its further clinical application. Herein, we shed light on the main mechanisms of SDT and the types of sonosensitizers, including organic sonosensitizers and inorganic sonosensitizers. Due to the development of nanotechnology, many novel nanoplatforms are utilized in this arisen field to solve the barriers of sonosensitizers and enable continuous innovation. This review also highlights the potential advantages of nanosonosensitizers and focus on the enhanced efficiency of SDT based on nanosonosensitizers with monotherapy or synergistic therapy for deep tumors that are difficult to reach by traditional treatment, especially orthotopic cancers.

Melanoma, a highly aggressive form of skin cancer, poses a major therapeutic challenge due to its metastatic potential, resistance to conventional therapies, and the complexity of the tumor microenvironment (TME). Materials science and nanotechnology advances have led to using nanocarriers such as liposomes, dendrimers, polymeric nanoparticles, and metallic nanoparticles as transformative solutions for precision melanoma therapy. This review summarizes findings from Web of Science, PubMed, EMBASE, Scopus, and Google Scholar and highlights the role of nanotechnology in overcoming melanoma treatment barriers. Nanoparticles facilitate passive and active targeting through mechanisms such as the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect and functionalization with tumor-specific ligands, thereby improving the accuracy of drug delivery and reducing systemic toxicity. Stimuli-responsive systems and multi-stage targeting further improve therapeutic precision and overcome challenges such as poor tumor penetration and drug resistance. Emerging therapeutic platforms combine diagnostic imaging with therapeutic delivery, paving the way for personalized medicine. However, there are still issues with scalability, biocompatibility, and regulatory compliance. This comprehensive review highlights the potential of integrating nanotechnology with advances in genetics and proteomics, scalable, and patient-specific therapies. These interdisciplinary innovations promise to redefine the treatment of melanoma and provide safer, more effective, and more accessible treatments. Continued research is essential to bridge the gap between evidence-based scientific advances and clinical applications.

Doxorubicin (DOX), an anthracycline, is widely used in cancer treatment by interfering RNA and DNA synthesis. Its broad antitumour spectrum makes it an effective therapy for a wide array of cancers. However, the prevailing drug-resistant cancer has proven to be a significant drawback to the success of the conventional chemotherapy regime and DOX has been identified as a major hurdle. Furthermore, the clinical application of DOX has been limited by rapid breakdown, increased toxicity, and decreased half-time life, highlighting an urgent need for more innovative delivery methods. Although advancements have been made, achieving a complete cure for cancer remains elusive. The development of nanoparticles offers a promising avenue for the precise delivery of DOX into the tumour microenvironment, aiming to increase the drug concentration at the target site while reducing side effects. Despite the good aspects of this technology, the classical nanoparticles struggle with issues such as premature drug leakage, low bioavailability, and insufficient penetration into tumours due to an inadequate enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect. Recent advancements have focused on creating stimuli-responsive nanoparticles and employing various chemosensitisers, including natural compounds and nucleic acids, fortifying the efficacy of DOX against resistant cancers. The efforts to refine nanoparticle targeting precision to improve DOX delivery are reviewed. This includes using receptor-mediated endocytosis systems to maximise the internalisation of drugs. The potential benefits and drawbacks of these novel techniques constitute significant areas of ongoing study, pointing to a promising path forward in addressing the challenges posed by drug-resistant cancers.

Mertansine (DM1), a potent tumor-killing maytansinoid, requires conjugation to antibodies or incorporation into nanocarriers due to its high toxicity. However, these carriers often result in undesirable biodistribution, leading to rapid and long-term accumulation in the kidneys or liver and potentially increased toxicity. To overcome this limitation, we used the hydrophilic, biocompatible, and stealth properties of polyacrylamide (PAAm) as a scaffold to develop water-soluble PAAm-DM1 polymer prodrugs, leveraging PAAm's previous success in delivering paclitaxel via subcutaneous administration. To monitor distribution and predict efficacy, we have imparted Positron Emission Tomography (PET) imaging capabilities to well-defined PAAm-DM1 polymer prodrugs. Our studies demonstrated the same tumor accumulation and the same distribution of PAAm-DM1 in the main organs such as liver, kidneys muscle, regardless of delivery route (subcutaneous or intravenous). Interestingly, tumor accumulation of PAAm-DM1 was primarily driven by passive accumulation, as indicated by PET imaging, without significantly altering treatment efficacy. This suggests complex mechanisms, possibly involving immune system interactions by influencing notably the metabolism and clearance. To enhance therapeutic outcomes, we combined the polymer prodrug with immunotherapy, specifically anti-CTLA4. Our findings highlight the promising potential of PAAm-DM1, offering a novel formulation strategy for DM1 in cancer therapy.

A knowledge of the difference of spatio-temporal behaviour of nanomedicine in different type of tumour models is important to develop well-targeted nanomedicine for tumour. In this study, intratumoral accumulation of the model nanomedicine, gadolinium-conjugated dextran (Gd-Dex), was examined with magnetic resonance imaging in two tumour models; mouse sarcoma S180 and radiation-induced mouse fibrosarcoma RIF-1. From time-course of the distribution images, the plasma-to-tumour interstitial tissue transfer constant (Ktrans) and fractional plasma volume (Vp) were calculated and mapped. Gd-Dex preferentially distributed to the marginal region of S180 tumours immediately after its injection, and then started to accumulate in some parts of the central region. Ktrans and Vp values were large in the marginal region, while only Ktrans was large in some parts of the central region. In contrast, the distribution of Gd-Dex in RIF-1 tumours was fairly homogeneous, and may have resulted from the homogeneous distributions of Ktrans and Vp. The amounts of Gd-Dex that accumulated in entire tumours in both tumour models correlated with the volume of tumours; however, accumulation in large S180 tumours deviated from the correlation in the early phase. The differences in the manner and pharmacokinetics of nanomedicine among tumour models may affect the accumulation of the medicine.

Cancer treatment faces significant challenges including inadequate tumor specificity, drug resistance, and severe side effects, often resulting in unsatisfactory patient outcomes. Nanomedicines offer a transformative platform for tumor-targeted drug delivery and antitumor potency activation, providing an indispensable strategy for overcoming the severe damage to normal tissues caused by the inherent "always-on" cytotoxicity of conventional therapeutic agents. This review focuses on the emerging concept of "nanoparticle-enabled in situ drug potency activation", where inactive or minimally toxic agents are selectively activated within tumors to enhance the therapeutic efficacy and minimize the adverse effects. We systematically analyzed literature from PubMed and Web of Science databases spanning the last two decades, emphasizing experimental evidence supporting this in situ drug potency activation concept. Key strategies including stimuli-responsive prodrug nanoparticles, metal-induced activation, and bioorthogonal reactions are critically evaluated for their potential to overcome limitations in current cancer therapies. The findings highlight the potential of in situ potency activation as a promising alternative to conventional therapeutics, with far-reaching implications for advancing effective and safe cancer treatments.

Cancer treatments such as surgery and chemotherapy have several limitations, including ineffectiveness against large or persistent tumors, high relapse rates, drug toxicity, and non-specificity of therapy. Researchers are exploring advanced strategies for treating this life-threatening disease to address these challenges. One promising approach is targeted drug delivery using prodrugs or surface modification with receptor-specific moieties for active or passive targeting. While various drug delivery systems have shown potential for reaching hepatic cells, nano-carriers offer significant size, distribution, and targetability advantages. Engineered nanocarriers can be customized to achieve effective and safe targeting of tumors by manipulating physical characteristics such as particle size or attaching receptor-specific ligands. This method is particularly advantageous in treating liver cancer by targeting specific hepatocyte receptors and enzymatic pathways for both passive and active therapeutic strategies. It highlights the epidemiology of liver cancer and provides an in-depth analysis of the various targeting approaches, including prodrugs, liposomes, magneto-liposomes, micelles, glycol-dendrimers, magnetic nanoparticles, chylomicron-based emulsion, and quantum dots surface modification with receptor-specific moieties. The insights from this review can be immensely significant for preclinical and clinical researchers working towards developing effective treatments for liver cancer. By utilizing these novel strategies, we can overcome the limitations of conventional therapies and offer better outcomes for liver cancer patients.

Nanoparticle technology has revolutionized breast cancer treatment by offering innovative solutions addressing the gaps in traditional treatment methods. This paper aimed to comprehensively explore the historical journey and advancements of nanoparticles in breast cancer treatment, highlighting their transformative impact on modern medicine. The discussion traces the evolution of nanoparticle-based therapies from their early conceptualization to their current applications and future potential. We initially explored the historical context of breast cancer treatment, highlighting the limitations of conventional therapies, such as surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy. The advent of nanotechnology has introduced a new era characterized by the development of various nanoparticles, including liposomes, dendrimers, and gold nanoparticles, designed to target cancer cells with remarkable precision. We further described the mechanisms of action for nanoparticles, including passive and active targeting, and reviewed significant breakthroughs and clinical trials that have validated their efficacy. Current applications of nanoparticles in breast cancer treatment have been examined, showcasing clinically approved therapies and comparing their effectiveness with traditional methods. This article also discusses the latest advancements in nanoparticle research, including drug delivery systems and combination therapy innovations, while addressing the current technical, biological, and regulatory challenges. The technical challenges include efficient and targeted delivery to tumor sites without affecting healthy tissue; biological, such as potential toxicity, immune system activation, or resistance mechanisms; economic, involving high production and scaling costs; and regulatory, requiring rigorous testing for safety, efficacy, and long-term effects to meet stringent approval standards. Finally, we have explored emerging trends, the potential for personalized medicine, and the ethical and social implications of this transformative technology. In conclusion, through comprehensive analysis and case studies, this paper underscores the profound impact of nanoparticles on breast cancer treatment and their future potential.

Cardiovascular diseases as myocardial infarction (MI) represent a major cause for morbidity and mortality worldwide. Even though, patients who survive MI are susceptible to high risk of heart failure. This is mainly attributed to the major loss of cardiomyocytes and limited regenerative potential of myocardium. Despite the availability of various cardiovascular drugs, they fail to address the main cause of MI. The optimum therapeutic goal should therefore focus on enhancing cardiac regeneration through cellular and cell-free therapeutic approaches. This review focused on different mechanisms of cardiac regeneration that can be achieved via non-cellular therapeutic modalities. Passive and active targeting of the infarcted myocardium using various nanoparticles that can be loaded with growth factors, drugs or affordable natural products can reduce negative ventricular remodeling, infarct size and the apoptotic rate of cardiomyocytes. In addition, injectable biomaterials-based nanocomposite can be used as a scaffold to support infarcted heart and recruit cells. Innovative affordable and less invasive cell-free approaches can be implemented to enhance cardiac regeneration post MI.

Mathematical models are crucial for predicting the behavior of drug conjugate nanoparticles and optimizing drug delivery systems in cancer therapy. These models simulate interactions among nanoparticle properties, tumor characteristics, and physiological conditions, including drug resistance and targeting specificity. However, they often rely on assumptions that may not accurately reflect in vivo conditions. In vitro studies, while useful, may not fully capture the complexities of the in vivo environment, leading to an overestimation of nanoparticle-based therapy effectiveness. Advancements in mathematical modeling, supported by preclinical data and artificial intelligence, are vital for refining nanoparticle-based therapies and improving their translation into effective clinical treatments.

This study investigated the potential anticancer efficacy of co-treating the MCF-7 breast cancer cell line with chitosan nanoparticles (Cs NPs) loaded with metformin (Met) and digoxin (Dig). The Cs NPs had a size range of 90.6-148.7 nm and a zeta potential of +11.7 to +11.9 mV, indicating a positive surface charge. Notably, the Cs NPs demonstrated high encapsulation efficiencies, with values of 90.97 ± 5.14 % for Met and 92.12 ± 3.81 % for Dig, indicating effective loading of both drugs. The results revealed that the co-delivery of Met and Dig via Cs NPs significantly enhanced the anticancer efficacy, outperforming the treatment with individual free drugs or their combination, thereby demonstrating the potential benefits of nanoparticle-mediated co-administration. The drugs-loaded Cs NPs induced a marked increase in apoptosis in MCF-7 cells, with a cell death rate of 67.56 %, and significantly reduced mammosphere size by 48.08 %, thereby demonstrating a superior therapeutic efficacy compared to treatment with individual free drugs or their combination. Notably, the drug-loaded Cs NPs exhibited potent anti-migratory and anti-angiogenic effects, significantly inhibiting cell migration and new blood vessel formation, which may contribute to overcoming the inherent resistance of tumors to conventional therapies. Mechanistically, the co-treatment with drugs-loaded Cs NPs was found to downregulate the expression of NOTCH-1 and HIF-1α, two key transcription factors involved in tumor cell survival and adaptation, suggesting that their inhibition is a crucial component of the therapeutic efficacy of this treatment strategy. Collectively, the findings of this study suggest that the co-delivery of Met and Dig via chitosan Cs NPs represents a promising therapeutic strategy for breast cancer, as it effectively targets key pathways involved in tumor growth and progression, and underscores the potential of Cs NPs as a versatile platform for cancer therapy.

Background and objectives: The use of polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) in drug delivery systems offers the advantages of enhancing drug efficacy and minimizing side effects; Methods: In this study, L-threonine polyurethane (LTPU) NPs have been fabricated by water-in-oil-in-water emulsion and solvent evaporation using biodegradable and biocompatible LTPU. This polymer was pre-synthesized through the use of an amino acid-based chain extender, desaminotyrosyl L-threonine hexyl ester (DLTHE), where urethane bonds are formed by poly(lactic acid)-poly(ethylene glycol)-poly(lactic acid) (PLA-PEG-PLA) triblock copolymer and 1,6-hexamethylene diisocyanate (HDI). LTPU is designed to be degraded by hydrolysis and enzymatic activity due to the presence of ester bonds and peptide bonds within the polymer backbone. LTPU NPs were fabricated by water-in-oil-in-water double emulsion solvent evaporation methods; Results: The polymerization of LTPU was confirmed by 1H-NMR, 13C-NMR, and FT-IR spectroscopies. The molecular weights and polydispersity, determined with GPC, were 28,800 g/mol and 1.46, respectively. The morphology and size of NPs, characterized by DLS, FE-SEM, TEM, and confocal microscopy, showed smooth and spherical particles with diameters less than 200 nm; Conclusions: In addition, the drug loading, encapsulation efficiency, and drug release profiles, using UV-Vis spectroscopy, showed the highest encapsulation efficiency with 2.5% carboplatin and sustained release profile.

Even though the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect is applicable for the passive targeting of solid tumors, many nanodrugs have failed to achieve meaningful clinical outcomes due to the heterogeneity of EPR effect. Therefore, understanding the mechanism of the EPR effect is crucial to overcome the obstacles nanomedicines face in clinical translation. The aim of this study was to establish a reliable method to increase awareness of the critical influencing factors of nanoparticle (NP) transport into tumors based on the EPR effect using a combined radiogenomics and clinical magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technique and gene set pathway enrichment analysis. Employing poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA)-coated Fe3O4 NPs as the contrast agent, the monolayer and multilayer distribution of the NPs were observed and quantitatively analyzed by MRI, improving the accuracy of evaluating vascular permeability by MRI. By performing Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analyses of genes and pathways, we identified a variety of genes affecting vascular permeability, such as Cldn1, Dlg2, Bves, Prkag3, Cldn10, and Cldn8, which are related to tight junctions and control the permeability of blood vessels in tumors. The method presented here provides an MRI-supported approach to increase the breadth of data collected from genetic screens, reveals genetic evidence of the presence of NPs in tumors and lays a foundation for clinical patient stratification and personalized treatment.

Skin carcinoma, which includes basal cell carcinoma (BCC), squamous cell carcinoma (SCC), and melanoma, is influenced by various factors such as genetic predisposition, chemical exposures, immune system imbalances, and ultraviolet (UV) radiation. This review delves into the mechanisms behind the development of these cancers, exploring the therapeutic potential of microbial, plant derived compounds and nanoparticles in advancing skin cancer treatments. Special attention is given to the cytotoxic effects of anti-neoplastic agents from microbial sources on different cancer cell lines, particularly melanoma. Additionally, the review highlights the role of phytochemicals - such as quercetin, resveratrol, and curcumin alongside vitamins, terpenoids, and sulforaphane, in management of skin cancers through mechanisms like apoptosis induction and cell cycle regulation. Recent advancements in nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems, including NP and microemulsion formulations, are also discussed for their enhanced ability to specifically target cancer cells. The diverse roles of NPs in skin cancer therapy, especially in terms of targeted drug delivery and immune modulation, are reviewed. These innovative NPs formulations have showed improved skin penetration and tumor-specific delivery, reduced systemic toxicity and enhanced therapeutic effectiveness.

The lymphatic system plays a crucial role in maintaining physiological homeostasis and regulating immune responses. Traditional imaging modalities such as magnetic resonance imaging, computerized tomography, and positron emission tomography have been widely used to diagnose disorders in the lymphatic system, including lymphedema, lymphangioma, lymphatic metastasis, and Castleman disease. Nano-fluorescence technology has distinct advantages-including naked-eye visibility, operational simplicity, portability of the laser, and real-time visibility-and serves as an innovative alternative to traditional imaging techniques. This review explores recent advancements in nano-fluorescence imaging aimed at enhancing the resolution of lymphatic structure, function, and immunity. After delineating the fundamental characteristics of lymphatic systems, it elaborates on the development of various nano-fluorescence systems (including nanoparticles incorporating fluorescent dyes and those with intrinsic fluorescence) while addressing key challenges such as photobleaching, limited tissue penetration, biocompatibility, and signal interference from biomolecules. Furthermore, this review highlights the clinical applications of nano-fluorescence and its potential integration into standard diagnostic protocols. Ongoing advancements in nanoparticle technology underscore the potential of nano-fluorescence to revolutionize the diagnosis and treatment of lymphatic disease.

Metastatic progression significantly reduces survival rates and complicates treatment strategies in various cancers. Our study introduces an mRNA therapy for metastasis inhibition by targeting activin A overexpression, a pivotal driver of metastasis and cachexia. Utilizing follistatin mRNA lipid nanoparticles, we effectively downregulated activin A both locally in the tumor environment and systemically. This led to a reduction in tumor burden and suppression of metastatic spread in a murine head and neck squamous cell carcinoma model. Treated mice exhibited minimal metastatic occurrence compared to controls. Additionally, our therapy preserved the cross-sectional area of muscle fibers and adipose tissues, combating the muscle and fat wasting typically observed in cancer-associated cachexia. The therapy also demonstrated a favorable safety profile, underscoring its potential for clinical translation. By integrating metastasis-suppressing and cachexia-alleviating mechanisms, our approach represents a promising advancement in comprehensive cancer management. Considering the widespread upregulation of activin A in many cancer types, our therapy holds considerable potential for application across a broad spectrum of oncologic treatments.

Nanotechnology has brought about a significant revolution in drug delivery, and research in this domain is increasingly focusing on understanding the role of nanoparticle (NP) characteristics in drug delivery efficiency. First and foremost, we center our attention on the size of nanoparticles. Studies have indicated that NP size significantly influences factors such as circulation time, targeting capabilities, and cellular uptake. Secondly, we examine the significance of nanoparticle shape. Various studies suggest that NPs of different shapes affect cellular uptake mechanisms and offer potential advantages in directing drug delivery. For instance, cylindrical or needle-like NPs may facilitate better cellular uptake compared to spherical NPs. Lastly, we address the importance of nanoparticle charge. Zeta potential can impact the targeting and cellular uptake of NPs. Positively charged NPs may be better absorbed by negatively charged cells, whereas negatively charged NPs might perform more effectively in positively charged cells. This review provides essential insights into understanding the role of nanoparticles in drug delivery. The properties of nanoparticles, including size, shape, and charge, should be taken into consideration in the rational design of drug delivery systems, as optimizing these characteristics can contribute to more efficient targeting of drugs to the desired tissues. Thus, research into nanoparticle properties will continue to play a crucial role in the future of drug delivery.

Over the last decade, biomedical nanomaterials have garnered significant attention due to their remarkable biological properties and diverse applications in biomedicine. Metal oxide nanoparticles (NPs) are particularly notable for their wide range of medicinal uses, including antibacterial, anticancer, biosensing, cell imaging, and drug/gene delivery. Among these, zinc oxide (ZnO) NPs stand out for their versatility and effectiveness. Recently, ZnO NPs have become a primary material in various sectors, such as pharmaceutical, cosmetic, antimicrobials, construction, textile, and automotive industries. ZnO NPs can generate reactive oxygen species and induce cellular apoptosis, thus underpinning their potent anticancer and antibacterial properties. To meet the growing demand, numerous synthetic approaches have been developed to produce ZnO NPs. However, traditional manufacturing processes often involve significant economic and environmental costs, prompting a search for more sustainable alternatives. Intriguingly, biological synthesis methods utilizing plants, plant extracts, or microorganisms have emerged as ideal for producing ZnO NPs. These green production techniques offer numerous medicinal, economic, environmental, and health benefits. This review highlights the latest advancements in the green synthesis of ZnO NPs and their biomedical applications, showcasing their potential to revolutionize the field with eco-friendly and cost-effective solutions.

Anticancer theranostic nanocarriers have the potential to enhance the efficacy of pharmaceutical evaluation of drugs. Semiconductor nanocrystals, also known as quantum dots (QDs), are particularly promising components of drug carrier systems due to their small sizes and robust photoluminescence properties. Herein, bright CdZnSeS quantum dots were synthesized in a single step via the hot injection method. The particles have a quasi-core/shell structure as evident from the high quantum yield (85 %), which decreased to 41 % after water solubilization. These water solubilized QDs were encapsulated into gallic acid / alginate (GA-Alg) matrices to fabricate imaging QDs@mod-PAA/GA-Alg particles with enhanced stability in aqueous media. Cell viability assessments demonstrated that these nanocarriers exhibited viability ranging from 63 % to 83 % across all tested cell lines. Furthermore, the QDs@mod-PAA/GA-Alg particles were loaded with betulinic acid (BA) and ceranib-2 (C2) for in vitro drug release studies against HL-60 leukemia and PC-3 prostate cancer cells. The BA loaded QDs@mod-PAA/GA-Alg had a half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 8.76 μg/mL against HL-60 leukemia cells, which is 3-fold lower than that of free BA (IC50 = 26.55 μg/mL). Similar enhancements were observed with nanocarriers loaded with C2 and simultaneously with both BA and C2. Additionally, BA:C2 loaded QDs@mod-PAA/GA-Alg nanocarriers displayed a similar enhancement (IC50 = 3.37 μg/mL compared against IC50 = 11.68 μg/mL for free BA:C2). The C2 loaded QDs@mod-PAA/GA-Alg nanocarriers had an IC50 = 2.24 μg/mL against HL-60 cells. C2 and BA loaded QDs@mod-PAA/GA-Alg NCr had IC50 values of 7.37 μg/mL and 24.55 μg/mL against PC-3 cells, respectively.

Leflunomide (LEF) is a well-known disease-modifying anti-rheumatic agent (DMARDs) that was approved in 1998 for rheumatoid arthritis (RA) management. It is enzymatically converted into active metabolite teriflunomide (TER) inside the body. LEF and TER possess several pharmacological effects in a variety of diseases including multiple sclerosis, cancer, viral infections and neurobehavioral brain disorders. Despite the aforementioned pharmacological effects exploring these effects in nanomedicine applications has been focused mainly on RA and cancer treatment. This review summarises the main pharmacological, and pharmacokinetic effects of LEF along with highlighting the applications of nanoencapsulation of LEF and its metabolite in different diseases.

Despite significant therapeutic advances, multiple myeloma (MM) remains a challenging, incurable, hematological malignancy. The efficacy of traditional chemotherapy and currently available anti-MM agents is in part limited by their adverse effects, which restrict their therapeutic potential. Nanotherapeutics is an emerging field of cancer therapy that can overcome the biological and chemical barriers of existing anticancer drugs. This review presents an overview of recent advancements in nanoparticle- and immunotherapy-based drug delivery systems for MM treatment. It further delves into the targeting strategies, mechanism of controlled drug release, and challenges associated with the development of drug delivery systems for the treatment of MM.