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©2014 Baishideng Publishing Group Inc.
World J Cardiol. May 26, 2014; 6(5): 260-276
Published online May 26, 2014. doi: 10.4330/wjc.v6.i5.260
Published online May 26, 2014. doi: 10.4330/wjc.v6.i5.260
Table 1 Cross-sectional studies evaluating vitamin D blood pressure
| Ref. | Year | Study design(sample size) | Country (ethnicity)Age | Correlation (lower reference range of 25(OH) vitamin D) | Findings |
| Snijder et al[67] | 2007 | Cross-sectional from the LASA (1205 subjects more than 65 yr old) | Netherlands (caucasian) men and women ≥ 65 yr | No (I quartile: < 25 nmol/L) | 25(OH) vitamin D was not associated with systolic or diastolic BP or prevalence of hypertension. Instead, PTH correlated with both BP and hypertension incidence |
| Martins et al[95] | 2007 | Cross-sectional from the 1988-1994 NHANES (15088 subjects) | United States (Caucasian and African Americans and other) men and women age stratified | Yes (I quartile: < 52.5 nmol/L) | Adjusted inter-quartile analysis showed an increased prevalence of hypertension in in the lower quartile of 25(OH) vitamin D (OR = 1.30, 95%CI; 1.13-1.49; P < 0.05) |
| Scragg et al[96] | 2007 | Cross-sectional from the 1988-1994 NHANES (12644 subjects not treated with anti-hypertensive drugs) | United States (Caucasian and African Americans and other) men and women age stratified | Yes (I quintile: < 40 nmol/L) | Adjusted inter-quintile analysis of 25(OH) vitamin D showed significant inverse correlation with both systolic (P < 0.01) and diastolic (P < 0.05) BP. This association was stronger in more than 50 years old and black people |
| Judd et al[97] | 2008 | Cross-sectional from the 1988-1992 NHANES (7699 non-hypertensive subjects) | United States (White and black people ) men and women age stratified | Yes (Vitamin D deficiency defined as < 50 nmol/L) | Lower 25(OH) vitamin D concentrations were associated with a higher blood pressure category in white people (P < 0.01) but after adjustment for age the association was no longer significant |
| Hintzpeter et al[98] | 2008 | Cross-sectional from GNHIES (4030 adults) | Germany (Caucasian) men and women 18-79 yr | Yes (Vitamin D deficiency defined as < 12 nmol/L[99]) | According to 25(OH) vitamin D levels, in multivariate analysis there was a relationship between 25(OH) vitamin D and hypertension bot in men (OR = 0.97, 95%CI: 0.94-0.99; P < 0.05) and in women (OR 0.96, 95%CI: 0.93-0.99; P < 0.05) |
| Hypponen et al[100] | 2008 | Cross-sectional from 1958 British birth cohort (6810 subjects) | United Kingdom (Caucasian) men and women 45-47 yr | Yes (I tertile: < 45 nmol/L) | The lower 25(OH) vitamin D tertile was associated with hypertension (OR 0.72, 95%CI: 0.61-0.86; P < 0.01) |
| Reis et al[101] | 2009 | Cross-sectional from the 2001-2004 NHANES (3577 non-pregnant adolescents without diagnosed diabetes) | United States (Caucasian and African Americans and other) male and female adolescent 12-19 yr | Yes (I quartile: < 37.5 nmol/L) | 25(OH) vitamin D was inversely associated with systolic BP (P < 0.05) also in the adjusted odds ratio for the interquartile comparison (OR = 2.36, 95%CI: 1.33-4.19; P < 0.05) |
| Pasco et al[102] | 2009 | Cross-sectional (861 subjects) | Australia (Caucasian) women: 20-92 yr | Yes (I tertile 25(OH)D: < 30 nmol/L) | In this cohort there was a significant inter-tertile difference in mean BP (P < 0.001) as well as in anti-hypertensive medication use (P < 0.01) |
| Almirall et al[103] | 2010 | Cross-sectional (237 subjects more than 64 years old) | Spain (Caucasian) men and women 64-93 yr | Yes (cut-off for vitamin D deficiency: < 62.5 nmol/L) | A significant negative association was observed between serum 25(OH) vitamin D levels and both systolic (P < 0.05) and diastolic BP (P < 0.05) also in multivariate analysis |
| Jorde et al[104] | 2010 | Cross-sectional from the Tromsø Study (4125 subjects not treated with anti-hypertensive drugs) | Norway (Caucasian) Men and women age stratified | Yes (I quartile: < 41.4 nmol/L) | At adjusted inter-quartile analysis serum 25(OH) vitamin D was inversely correlated with systolic BP (P < 0.01) |
| Kim et al[105] | 2010 | Cross-sectional (1330 subjects) | South Korea (Asian) | Yes (I quintile: < 29.7 nmol/L) | At adjusted inter-quintile analysis, both systolic and diastolic BP decreased linearly with increasing of 25(OH) vitamin D (quintile 1-5; P for trend < 0.01). Moreover, inter-quintile comparison of BP had OR of 0.42 (95%CI: 0.24-0.73; P < 0.05) |
| Zhao et al[106] | 2010 | Cross-sectional from the 2003-2006 NHANES (5414 subjects not assuming anti-hypertensive drugs) | Men and women < 40 yr United States (Hispanic, Caucasian and African Americans) men and women ≥ 20 yr | Yes (I quintile: < 37.5 nmol/L | Across 25(OH) vitamin D quintiles systolic and diastolic BP decreased linearly and inversely (P < 0.01). Moreover, the prevalence ratio for hypertension was lower in the highest quintile (OR = 0.82, 95%CI: 0.73-0.91; P < 0.05) |
| Fraser et al[107] | 2010 | Cross-sectional from the 2001-2006 NHANES (3958 subjects) | United States (Caucasian and African Americans and other) men and women ≥ 20 yr | Yes (linear correlation) | 25(OH) vitamin D has an inverse linear correlation with systolic blood pressure in various adjusted models (P < 0.05) |
| Steinvil et al[108] | 2011 | Cross-sectional case-control study (34874 subjects of which 8387 hypertensive) | Israel men and women 38-72 yr | Yes (vitamin D deficiency defined as < 37.5 nmol/L) | The age-adjusted OR for hypertension among normal and deficient serum 25(OH) vitamin D was 1.19 (95%CI: 1.09-1.31; P < 0.01) in women, whereas in men there was not statistical difference |
| Burgaz et al[109] | 2011 | Cross-sectional from the ULSAM (833 adult men) | Sweden (Caucasian) Men 71 yr | Yes (vitamin D deficiency defined as < 37.5 nmol/L) | Adjusted logistic regression confirmed the association between 25(OH) vitamin D concentration < 37.5 nmol/L and hypertension (OR = 3.3, 95%CI: 1.0-11.0; P < 0.05) |
| Bhandari et al[110] | 2011 | Cross-sectional (2722 subjects of which 1415 hypertensive) | United States (Caucasian and African Americans and other) men and women mean age 58.5 yr | Yes (I quartile: < 37.5 nmol/L) | The prevalence rate of hypertension was inversely correlated with serum 25(OH) vitamin D. Inter-quartile comparison showed an adjusted OR of 2.70 (95%CI: 1.41-5.19; P < 0.05) |
| Pacifico et al[111] | 2011 | Cross-sectional case-control study (452 children and adolescent of which 304 over-weight/obese and 148 normal weight) | Italy (Caucasian) Male and female children | Yes (I tertile of 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D: < 42.5 nmol/L) | 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D was inversely correlated with systolic BP both in the whole population (P < 0.01) and over-weight (P < 0.01) population as well as in control group (P < 0.01). Regardless of model for adjusted analysis, the OR for hypertension among tertile categories had a P value < 0.05. |
| Williams et al[112] | 2011 | Cross-sectional from 2003-2006 NHANES (5617 adolescent) | United States (Caucasian and African Americans and other) male and female children 12-19 yr | Yes (linear correlation) | In this cohort, 25(OH) vitamin D showed a linear inverse association with systolic BP in multivariate analysis (P < 0.01). |
| Forrest et al[113] | 2011 | Cross-sectional from 2005-2006 NHANES (4495 adults subjects of which 1482 hypertensive) | United States (Caucasian and African Americans and other) Men and women age stratified | Yes (vitamin D deficiency defined < 50 nmol/L[114]) | Vitamin D deficiency independently correlated with prevalence of hypertension (P < 0.01). |
| He et al[70] | 2011 | Cross-sectional from 2003-2006 NHANES (7561 of which 1849 treated with anti-hypertensive drugs) | United States (Caucasian and African Americans and other) Men and women age stratified | No (I quintile: < 33 nmol/L) | 25(OH) vitamin D was inversely associated with systolic BP. However, 25(OH) vitamin D lost its statistical significance in a multivariate analysis including PTH. Instead, PTH maintained a strong correlation with BP in multivariate analysis regardless of covariates. |
| Dorjgochoo et al[115] | 2012 | Cross-sectional study from two, population-based, prospective cohort studies (1460 subjects of which 547 hypertensive) | China (Asian) men and women 40-74 yr | Yes (lowers range defined by I quintile 23.5 nmol/L and cut-offs of 37.5 nmol/L[116] and 27.5 nmol/L[117]) | Among men cohort, BP was inversely and significantly correlated with 25(OH) vitamin D (P < 0.05). Moreover, prevalence of hypertension was inversely associated with non-deficient status of vitamin D (adjusted OR = 0.29, 95%CI: 0.10-0.82; P < 0.05) |
| Sakamoto et al[118] | 2013 | Cross-sectional from the AHS-2 (568 subjects) | United States (equally matched Caucasian and African Americans) men and women 30-95 yr | Yes (vitamin D deficiency defined as < 50 nmol/L) | Regardless of adjusted analysis models, Caucasian people showed a linear inverse correlation between 25(OH) vitamin D and BP (P < 0.05). Also the comparison between vitamin D deficient and non-deficient showed statistical difference (P < 0.05). |
| Li et al[64] | 2012 | Cross-sectional (1420 subjects of which 487 hypertensive) | China (Asian) Men and women ≥ 65 yr | No (I quartile: < 42 nmol/L) | Serum 25(OH) vitamin D levels were not associated with risk of hypertension in single and multiple regression models. Similarly, PTH is not independently associated with BP or risk of hypertension |
| Caro et al[119] | 2012 | Cross-sectional (219 subjects of which 115 hypertensive) | Puerto Rico (Hispanic) Men and women 21-50 yr | No (cut-off used to define non optimal: 75 nmol/L) | Vitamin D status was not found to be associated with BP |
| Chan et al[72] | 2012 | Cross-sectional (939 men aged 65 yr and older) | China (Asian) men ≥ 65 yr (age strafied) | No (I quartile: < 63 nmol/L) | Vitamin D status was not found to be associated with BP. Instead, PTH was directly and independently associated with BP also in multivariate analysis. |
| Parikh et al[120] | 2012 | Cross-sectional (701 adolescents) | United States (Caucasian and African Americans) Male and female 14-18 yr | Yes (I tertile: < 54.8 nmol/L) | Serum 25(OH) vitamin D has a linear inverse correlation with both systolic (P < 0.05) and diastolic (P < 0.01) BP. However, in the adjusted analysis only the relationship with systolic BP remained significant. |
| Sabanayagam et al[121] | 2012 | Cross-sectional from NHANES III (9215 subjects of which 3712 with pre-hypertension) | United States (Caucasian and African Americans and other) men and women age stratified | Yes (I quartile: < 44.25 nmol/L) | In this cohort the systolic BP are inversely correlated with the vitamin D status (P < 0.05) and lower values of 25(OH) vitamin D were associated with increase prevalence of pre-hypertension (adjusted OR = 1.48, 95%CI: 1.16-1.90; P value for trend < 0.01). |
| van Ballegooijen et al[122] | 2012 | Cross-sectional from the Hoorn study (256 subjects) | The Netherlands (Caucasian) men and women 50-75 yr | Yes (I quartile: < 60.8 nmol/L) | In this cohort there was an inverse correlation between 25(OH) vitamin D and both systolic and diastolic BP (P value for trend < 0.01 for both) |
| Skaaby et al[123] | 2012 | Cross-sectional 4330 subjects) | Denmark (Caucasian) men and women 30-60 yr | No (I quartile: < 33 nmol/L) | Mean 25(OH) vitamin D levels did not differed between hypertensive and normotensive subjects. There was not increased prevalence of hypertension in vitamin D deficient subjects |
| Kruger et al[124] | 2013 | Cross-sectional form the PURE study (291 African women) | All over the world countries (African) women > 47 yr | Yes (vitamin D deficiency defined as < 30 nmol/L[125]) | Both systolic and diastolic BP correlated linearly and inversely with serum 25(OH) vitamin D level (P < 0.05 for both). However, only systolic BP maintain statistical significance in multivariate analysis (P < 0.05). |
| Mateus-Hamdan et al[73] | 2013 | Cross-sectional (284 geriatric patients of which 106 hypertensive) | France men and women mean age 85 ± 6 yr | No (linear correlation) | Means PTH but not 25(OH) vitamin D levels are significant different in hypertensive compared to normotensive patients. |
| Ke et al[126] | 2013 | Cross-sectional from the ATBC (2271 subjects of which 1430 hypertensive) | Finland (Caucasian) men and women 50-69 yr | Yes (I quartile: < 25 nmol/L) | Serum 25(OH) vitamin D level has a significant and inverse association with systolic BP (P < 0.05), also if stratified in groups. Moreover, the lower group was associated with increased prevalence of hypertension in multivariate analysis (P value for trend < 0.05). |
Table 2 Longitudinal studies addressing the association between vitamin D and blood pressure
| Ref. | Year | Study design and follow-up (sample size) | Country (ethnicity)Age | Correlation (lower reference range of 25(OH) vitamin D) | Findings |
| Forman et al[129] | 2007 | Prospective observational nested case-control study from HPFS and NHS-2 4 yr (1811 subjects) | United States (Caucasian) men 47-82 yr women 43-68 yr | Yes (vitamin D deficiency defined as < 37.5 nmol/L[130]) | Multivariate RR of incident hypertension among vitamin D deficient subject was 3.18 (95%CI: 1.39-7.29; P < 0.05) |
| Forouhi et al[131] | 2008 | Prospective observational from the Ely study 10 yr (534 subject) | United Kingdom (Caucasian) men and women 40-69 yr | No (vitamin D deficiency defined as < 25 nmol/L) | There were not significant changes in BP during the follow-up |
| Forman et al[132] | 2008 | Prospective observational nested case-control study from the NHS 2 7 yr (1484 normotensive women) | United States (Caucasian) women: 32-52 yr | Yes (I quartile: < 21 nmol/L) | Median 25(OH) vitamin D were lower in women developing hypertension (P < 0.01). Moreover, interquartile analysis showed significant and inverse correlation between 25(OH) vitamin D and hypertension (OR = 1.66, 95%CI: 1.11-2.48; P value for trend < 0.05) |
| Jorde et al[104] | 2010 | Prospective observational from the Tromsø Study 14 yr (4125 subjects not treated with anti-hypertensive drugs) | Norway (Caucasian) men and women 25-84 yr | No (I quartile: < 41.4 nmol/L) | At adjusted analysis, 25(OH) vitamin D did not predict future hypertension or increase in BP: Moreover there was not any association between change in serum 25(OH) vitamin D and BP |
| Anderson et al[133] | 2010 | Prospective observational average 1.3 yr (maximum 9.1 yr) (41497 subjects) | United States men and women 34-76 yr | Yes (vitamin D deficiency defined as < 37.5 nmol/L) | Lower 25(OH) vitamin D levels were associated with higher incidence of hypertension (HR = 1.62, 95%CI: 1.48-2.02; P < 0.01) |
| Griffin et al[134] | 2011 | Prospective observational from MBHMS 14 yr (559 women) | United States (Caucasian) women 24-44 yr | Yes (vitamin D deficiency defined as < 80 nmol/L) | 25(OH) vitamin D insufficiency has an increased risk of systolic hypertension at multivariate analysis (OR = 3.0, 95%CI: 1.01-8.7; P < 0.05) |
| Margolis et al[135] | 2012 | Prospective observational from the WHI 7 yr (4863 post-menopausal women) | United States (Caucasian, African, Hispanic, Asian and others) women 50-79 yr | No (I quartile: < 34.4 nmol/L) | There was not significant linear or nonlinear trend in the risk of incident hypertension |
| Wang et al[136] | 2012 | Prospective observational form PHS 15.3 yr (1211 normotensive men) | United States men 40-84 yr | Yes (I quartile: < 39.9 nmol/L) | There was significant difference only between I and III quartile (HR = 0.69, 95%CI: 0.50-0.96; P < 0.05) |
| Skaaby et al[123] | 2012 | Prospective observational 5 yr (4330 subjects) | Denmark (Caucasian) men and women 30-61 yr | No (I quartile: < 33 nmol/L) | Multivariate logistic regression analyses did not show any association between 25(OH) vitamin D incidence rate of hypertension. |
| Ke et al[126] | 2013 | Prospective observational from the ATBC 4 yr (2271 subjects of which 1430 hypertensive) | Finland (Caucasian) men and women 50-69 yr | No (I quartile: < 25 nmol/L) | 25(OH) vitamin D did not predict future hypertension. |
Table 3 Randomized clinical trial investigating the protective effect of vitamin D supplementation on blood pressure
| Ref. | Year | Study design | Country (ethnicity)Age | Intervention | Findings |
| Lint et al[137] | 1988 | (sample size) Prospective randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial (65 men with glucose intolerance of which 26 hypertensive) | Sweden (Caucasian) 61-65 yr | (follow-up) α-calcidol 0.75 μg (12 wk) | In hypertensive patients supplementation has addictive effect to concomitant antihypertensive therapy in reducing BP (P < 0.01). In the whole population there was only non-significant trend in BP lowering |
| Pan et al[138] | 1993 | Prospective randomized double-blind 2 × 2 interventional trial (58 institutionalized elderly persons) | Taiwan (Asian) not provided | calcium 800 mg/d or 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D 5 μg/d or calcium 800 mg/d + 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D 5 μg/d, or placebo (11 wk) | Any type of supplementation failed to reduce BP |
| Scragg et al[139] | 1995 | Prospective randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial (189 elderly subjects) | United Kingdom (not provided) 63-76 yr | 25(OH) vitamin D 2.5 μg/d or placebo (5 wk) | Although treatment was effective in increasing serum 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D (P < 0.01) and decreasing PTH (P < 0.01), there was not difference in BP change |
| Krause et al[140] | 1998 | Prospective randomized double-blind controlled trial (18 patients with untreated mild essential hypertension) | Germany (Caucasian) 26-66 yr | Full body UVB or UVA thrice weekly (6 wk) | In accordance with a 162% rise in plasmatic 25(OH) vitamin D (P < 0.01) and 15% fall in serum PTH (P < 0.01), the UVB group showed also a reduction in 24-h ambulatory systolic and diastolic BP (P < 0.01) |
| Pfeifer et al[141] | 2001 | Prospective randomized double-blind controlled trial (148 elderly subject with 25(OH)D < 50 nmol/L) | Germany (Caucasian) 70-86 yr | Calcium 600 mg × 2/d or calcium 600 mg + 25(OH) vitamin D 10 μg twice daily (8 wk) | In accordance with a 72% rise in plasmatic 25(OH) vitamin D (P < 0.01) and 17% fall in serum PTH (P < 0.05), combined supplementation significantly reduced systolic BP (P < 0.05) |
| Sudgen et al[142] | 2008 | Prospective randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial (34 elderly type 2 diabetic patients with 25(OH)D < 50 nmol/L) | United Kingdom (not provided) | Loading dose ergocalciferol 2500 μg or placebo (8 wk) | Supplementation significantly rise plasmatic 25(OH) vitamin D (P < 0.01) and reduced systolic BP, whereas there was only a trend in diastolic BP decrease |
| Alborzi et al[143] | 2008 | Prospective randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial (24 elderly type 2 diabetic patients with 25(OH)D < 50 nmol/L) | mean 64 years United States (Caucasian and African Americans) 56-80 yr | Paricalcitol 1 or 2 μg/d or placebo (4 wk) | Any dose of paricalcitol failed to reduce BP |
| Margolis et al[144] | 2008 | Prospective randomized double-blind controlled trial (36282 n post-menopausal women from WHI study) | United States (Caucasian, Asian, Hispanic, African American) 50-79 yr | Calcium 500 mg × 2/d or calcium 500 mg + 25(OH) vitamin D 5 μg twice daily (7 yr) | There was no significant difference in over time change of BP in the whole population. In addition, supplementation failed to reduce the risk of developing hypertension in non-hypertensive patients at baseline |
| Nagpal et al[145] | 2008 | Prospective randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial (71 older overweight men ) | India (Indian population) 36-54 yr | 25(OH) vitamin D 3000 μg every 2 wk for 3 times or placebo (7 wk) | Supplementation failed to reduce BP |
| Daly et al[146] | 2009 | Prospective randomized double-blind controlled trial (124 community-dwelling men) | Australia (Caucasian) 55-69 yr | Milk fortified with calcium (500 mg) and 25(OH) vitamin D (10 μg) twice a day or standard milk (2 yr) | Supplementation failed to reduce BP |
| Hilpert et al[147] | 2009 | Prospective randomized double-blind controlled trial (23 hypertensive adults) | United States (not provided) | Dairy-rich, high fruits and vegetables diet or a high fruits and vegetables diet or an average Western diet (5 wk) | High fruits and vegetables diet dairy-rich or not significantly reduced BP (P < 0.05). Moreover, in dairy-rich, high fruits and vegetables diet there was a greater lowering of intracellular calcium (P < 0.01), strongly associated with fall in diastolic BP (P < 0.05) |
| Witham et al[148] | 2010 | Prospective randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial (56 patients with history of stroke and baseline 25(OH)D < 75 nmol/L) | United Kingdom (not provided) 53-79 yr | Loading dose ergocalciferol 2500 μg or placebo (8 and 16 wk) | Supplementation significantly increased serum 25(OH) vitamin D to both controls (P < 0.01). However, treatment failed to reduced BP |
| Witham et al[149] | 2010 | Prospective randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial (61 patients with type 2 diabetes and baseline 25(OH)D < 100 nmol/L) | United Kingdom (not provided) 55-76 yr | Loading dose ergocalciferol 2500 μg or 5000 μg or placebo (8 and 16 wk) | Supplementation significantly increased serum 25(OH) vitamin D to both controls (P < 0.01 for both). However, supplementation failed to reduced BP |
| Judd et al[150] | 2010 | Prospective randomized double-blind controlled trial (9 patients with baseline 25(OH)D within 25 and 75 nmol/L in addition to systolic BP between 130 and 150 mmHg) | United States (African American) mean 45 yr | loading dose ergocalciferol 2500 μg or placebo weekly for 3 wk or 25 (OH) vitamin D 0.5 μg twice a day for 1 wk (3 wk) | Only supplementation with 25(OH) vitamin D decrease by 9% mean systolic BP (P < 0.01) in accordance with rise of serum 25(OH) vitamin D (P < 0.05) |
| Scragg et al[151] | 2011 | Prospective randomized double-blind controlled trial (119 patients with baseline 25(OH)D < 50 nmol) | New Zealand (Pacific islander, Caucasian and Maori) 23-87 yr | 24 whole body exposures of either UVB or ultraviolet A (6 and 12 wk) | In the UVB arm there was a significant increase in serum 25 (OH) vitamin D after both 6 and 12 wk (P < 0.01 for both). However, treatment failed to reduced BP |
| Salehpour et al[152] | 2012 | Prospective randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial (77 pre-menopausal overweight and obese women) | Iran (Arabian) 30-46 yr | 25 (OH) vitamin D 25 μg daily or placebo (12 wk) | Supplementation significantly rise plasmatic 25 (OH) vitamin D (P < 0.01) and fall PTH (P < 0.01). Moreover, although treatment improved lipid profile, there was no effect on BP |
| Gepner et al[153] | 2012 | Prospective randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial (110 post-menopausal women with baseline 25(OH)D within 10 and 60 nmol/L) | United States (not provided) 60-67 yr | 25 (OH) vitamin D 62.5 μg daily or placebo (16 wk) | Supplementation, although significantly raised serum 25(OH) vitamin D (P < 0.01), failed in improving BP control assessed by changes in FMD, PWV and Aix |
| Wood et al[154] | 2012 | Prospective randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial (305 healthy post-menopausal women) | United Kingdom (not provided) 48-72 yr | 25 (OH) vitamin D 10 μg or 25 μg/d or placebo (1 yr) | Supplementation failed in improving CV risk profile, including BP control |
| Larsen et al[155] | 2012 | Prospective randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial (112 hypertensive patients) | Denmark (Caucasian) 48-72 yr | 25 (OH) vitamin D 75 μg/d or placebo (20 wk) | Supplementation significantly rise plasmatic 25 (OH) vitamin D (P < 0.01) and fall PTH (P < 0.01) but failed in improving BP control. However, in a post-hoc subgroup analysis of patient with 25 (OH) vitamin D deficiency at baseline supplementation significantly decrease 24-h systolic and diastolic BP (P < 0.05) |
| Zhu et al[156] | 2013 | Prospective randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial (43 healthy subjects) | China (Asian) 20-22 yr | Calcium 600 mg + 25 (OH) vitamin D 3.12 μg daily or placebo, in addition to 500 kcal/d of caloric deficit (7 yr) | Except a reduction in visceral fat mass, supplementation failed in improving CV risk profile, including BP control |
| Forman et al[157] | 2013 | Prospective randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial (283 healthy black subjects) | United States (African American) mean 51 yr | 25 (OH) vitamin D 25 μg or 50 or 100 μg/d or placebo (12 and 24 wk) | Supplementation significantly decrease BP consistent with increasing dose (P < 0.05). Moreover, there was linear correlation between systolic BP decrease and rise of serum 25 (OH) vitamin D (P < 0.05) |
| Witham et al[158] | 2013 | Prospective randomized double-blind placebo-controlled trial (159 with isolate systolic hypertension) | United States (not provided) mean 77 yr | Loading dose 25 (OH) vitamin D 2500 μg or placebo (12, 24 and 36 wk) | Supplementation significantly rise plasmatic 25 (OH) vitamin D (P < 0.01) but failed in improving BP control. Moreover, treatment failed to achieve secondary outcomes including 24-h blood pressure, arterial stiffness and endothelial function |
- Citation: Carbone F, Mach F, Vuilleumier N, Montecucco F. Potential pathophysiological role for the vitamin D deficiency in essential hypertension. World J Cardiol 2014; 6(5): 260-276
- URL: https://www.wjgnet.com/1949-8462/full/v6/i5/260.htm
- DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.4330/wjc.v6.i5.260