1.1 Peritoneal dialysis is a suitable renal replacement therapy modality for treatment of acute kidney injury in children. (1C)2. Access and fluid delivery for acute PD in children.2.1 We recommend a Tenckhoff catheter inserted by a surgeon in the operating theatre as the optimal choice for PD access. (1B) (optimal)2.2 Insertion of a PD catheter with an insertion kit and using Seldinger technique is an acceptable alternative. (1C) (optimal)2.3 Interventional radiological placement of PD catheters combining ultrasound and fluoroscopy is an acceptable alternative. (1D) (optimal)2.4 Rigid catheters placed using a stylet should only be used when soft Seldinger catheters are not available, with the duration of use limited to <3 days to minimize the risk of complications. (1C) (minimum standard)2.5 Improvised PD catheters should only be used when no standard PD access is available. (practice point) (minimum standard)2.6 We recommend the use of prophylactic antibiotics prior to PD catheter insertion. (1B) (optimal)2.7 A closed delivery system with a Y connection should be used. (1A) (optimal) A system utilizing buretrols to measure fill and drainage volumes should be used when performing manual PD in small children. (practice point) (optimal)2.8 In resource limited settings, an open system with spiking of bags may be used; however, this should be designed to limit the number of potential sites for contamination and ensure precise measurement of fill and drainage volumes. (practice point) (minimum standard)2.9 Automated peritoneal dialysis is suitable for the management of paediatric AKI, except in neonates for whom fill volumes are too small for currently available machines. (1D)3. Peritoneal dialysis solutions for acute PD in children3.1 The composition of the acute peritoneal dialysis solution should include dextrose in a concentration designed to achieve the target ultrafiltration. (practice point)3.2  Once potassium levels in the serum fall below 4 mmol/l, potassium should be added to dialysate using sterile technique. (practice point) (optimal) If no facilities exist to measure the serum potassium, consideration should be given for the empiric addition of potassium to the dialysis solution after 12 h of continuous PD to achieve a dialysate concentration of 3-4 mmol/l. (practice point) (minimum standard)3.3  Serum concentrations of electrolytes should be measured 12 hourly for the first 24 h and daily once stable. (practice point) (optimal) In resource poor settings, sodium and potassium should be measured daily, if practical. (practice point) (minimum standard)3.4  In the setting of hepatic dysfunction, hemodynamic instability and persistent/worsening metabolic acidosis, it is preferable to use bicarbonate containing solutions. (1D) (optimal) Where these solutions are not available, the use of lactate containing solutions is an alternative. (2D) (minimum standard)3.5  Commercially prepared dialysis solutions should be used. (1C) (optimal) However, where resources do not permit this, locally prepared fluids may be used with careful observation of sterile preparation procedures and patient outcomes (e.g. rate of peritonitis). (1C) (minimum standard)4. Prescription of acute PD in paediatric patients4.1 The initial fill volume should be limited to 10-20 ml/kg to minimize the risk of dialysate leakage; a gradual increase in the volume to approximately 30-40 ml/kg (800-1100 ml/m²) may occur as tolerated by the patient. (practice point)4.2 The initial exchange duration, including inflow, dwell and drain times, should generally be every 60-90 min; gradual prolongation of the dwell time can occur as fluid and solute removal targets are achieved. In neonates and small infants, the cycle duration may need to be reduced to achieve adequate ultrafiltration. (practice point)4.3 Close monitoring of total fluid intake and output is mandatory with a goal to achieve and maintain normotension and euvolemia. (1B)4.4 Acute PD should be continuous throughout the full 24-h period for the initial 1-3 days of therapy. (1C)4.5  Close monitoring of drug dosages and levels, where available, should be conducted when providing acute PD. (practice point)5. Continuous flow peritoneal dialysis (CFPD)5.1   Continuous flow peritoneal dialysis can be considered as a PD treatment option when an increase in solute clearance and ultrafiltration is desired but cannot be achieved with standard acute PD. Therapy with this technique should be considered experimental since experience with the therapy is limited. (practice point) 5.2  Continuous flow peritoneal dialysis can be considered for dialysis therapy in children with AKI when the use of only very small fill volumes is preferred (e.g. children with high ventilator pressures). (practice point).

The COVID-19 pandemic strained hospital resources in New York City, including those for providing dialysis. New York University Medical Center and affiliations, including New York City Health and Hospitals/Bellevue, developed a plan to offset the increased needs for KRT. We established acute peritoneal dialysis (PD) capability, as usual dialysis modalities were overwhelmed by COVID-19 AKI.

Observational study of patients requiring KRT admitted to Bellevue Hospital during the COVID surge. Bellevue Hospital is one of the largest public hospitals in the United States, providing medical care to an underserved population. There were substantial staff, supplies, and equipment shortages. Adult patients admitted with AKI who required KRT were considered for PD. We rapidly established an acute PD program. A surgery team placed catheters at the bedside in the intensive care unit; a nephrology team delivered treatment. We provided an alternative to hemodialysis and continuous venovenous hemofiltration for treating patients in the intensive-care unit, demonstrating efficacy with outcomes comparable to standard care.

From April 8, 2020 to May 8, 2020, 39 catheters were placed into ten women and 29 men. By June 10, 39% of the patients started on PD recovered kidney function (average ages 56 years for men and 59.5 years for women); men and women who expired were an average 71.8 and 66.2 years old. No episodes of peritonitis were observed; there were nine incidents of minor leaking. Some patients were treated while ventilated in the prone position.

Demand compelled us to utilize acute PD during the COVID-19 pandemic. Our experience is one of the largest recently reported in the United States of which we are aware. Acute PD provided lifesaving care to acutely ill patients when expanding current resources was impossible. Our experience may help other programs to avoid rationing dialysis treatments in health crises.

Acute kidney injury (AKI) has become a worldwide public health problem, resulting in a high risk of mortality and progression to chronic kidney disease. Peritoneal dialysis (PD) can be an effective renal support for AKI, especially in regions where medical resources are limited, but actually underused. In this article, the current barriers and challenges of use of PD in AKI are discussed, including health strategy and medical resources, PD team organization, and technique-specific factors. Currently, we are just on the starting line of the campaign of acute PD. It is still a long way to the development of PD as a mature treatment in AKI.

Peritoneal dialysis (PD) and hemodialysis (HD) are options for the treatment of acute kidney injury (AKI) patients. The aim of this study was to compare the effects of PD and daily HD on respiratory mechanics of AKI patients undergoing invasive mechanical ventilation (IMV).

A prospective cohort study evaluated 154 patients, 37 on continuous PD and 94 on HD. Respiratory mechanics parameters such as pulmonary static compliance (Psc) and resistance of the respiratory system (Rsr) and oxygenation index (OI) were assessed for 3 days. Patients were evaluated at moments 1, 2 and 3 (pre- and post-dialysis).

The initial clinical parameters were similar in the two groups, except the age that was higher in continuous PD group (70.8 ± 11.6 vs. 60 ± 15.8; p < 0.0001). In both groups, Psc increased significantly, with no difference between the two groups-pre-dialysis (continuous PD 40 ± 17.4, 42.8 ± 17.2, 48 ± 19; HD 39.1 ± 21.3, 39. 5 ± 18.9, 45.2 ± 21) and post-dialysis (continuous PD 42.8 ± 7.2, 48 ± 19, 57.1 ± 18.3; HD 42 ± 19, 45 ± 18.5, 56 ± 24.8). Rsr remained stable among patients on continuous PD (pre-dialysis 10.4 ± 5.1, 13.3 ± 7.7, 13.5 ± 10.3, post-dialysis 13.3 ± 7.7, 13.5 ± 10.3, 11.1 ± 5.9) and decreased among HD patients (pre-dialysis 10.4 ± 5.1, 10.4 ± 5.1, 10.4 ± 5, 1, post-dialysis 10.5 ± 6.8, 10 ± 4.9, 8.9 ± 4.2). There was difference in Rsr between the two groups at the post-dialysis moments 1 and 2 (p = 0.03). OI increased in both groups (continuous PD 260.7 ± 119, 252.7 ± 87.1, 287.3 ± 88.4; HD 228 ± 85, 257 ± 84, 312.1 ± 111.5, p > 0.05), although there was no difference between them.

AKI patients undergoing IMV and HD or PD had improvement in the mechanical ventilation and oxygenation, with no difference between the two groups.

Peritoneal dialysis (PD) has been suggested as an effective and safe dialysis modality in patients with acute kidney injury (AKI). However, whether PD is superior to extracorporeal therapy (e.g. haemodialysis) in terms of improving survival, recovery of kidney function, metabolic and clinical outcomes is still inconclusive.

The aim of this review was to evaluate the benefits and harms of PD for patients with AKI compared with extracorporeal therapy or different PD modalities.

We searched the Cochrane Kidney and Transplant Register of Studies to 29 May 2017 through contact with the Information Specialist using search terms relevant to this review. Studies in the Register are identified through searches of CENTRAL, MEDLINE, and EMBASE, conference proceedings, the International Clinical Trials Register (ICTRP) Search Portal, and ClinicalTrials.gov. We also searched the China Biological Medicine Database.

We included patients with AKI who were randomised to receive PD, extracorporeal therapy, or different PD modalities regardless of their age, sex, primary disease and clinical course.

Screening, selection, data extraction and quality assessments for each retrieved article were carried out by two authors using standardised forms. Authors contacted when published data were incomplete. Statistical analyses were performed using the random effects model and results expressed as risk ratio (RR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI). Heterogeneity among studies was explored using the Cochran Q statistic and the I² test. Outcomes of interest included all-cause mortality, recovery of kidney function, weekly delivered Kt/V, correction of acidosis, fluid removal, duration of dialysis, and infectious complications. Confidence in the evidence was assessing using GRADE.

Six studies (484 participants) met our inclusion criteria. Five studies compared high volume PD with daily haemodialysis, extended daily haemodialysis, or continuous renal replacement therapy. One study focused on the intensity of PD. The overall risk of bias was low to unclear. Compared to extracorporeal therapy, PD probably made little or no difference to all-cause mortality (4 studies, 383 participants: RR 1.12, 95% CI 0.81 to 1.55; I² = 69%; moderate certainty evidence), or kidney function recovery (3 studies, 333 participants: RR 0.95, 95% CI 0.68 to 1.35; I² = 0%; moderate certainty evidence). PD probably slightly reduces the amount of fluid removal compared to extracorporeal therapy (3 studies, 313 participants: MD -0.59 L/d, 95% CI -1.19 to 0.01; I² = 89%; low certainty evidence), and probably made little or no difference to infectious complications (2 studies, 263 participants: RR 1.03, 95% CI 0.60 to 1.78; I² = 0%; low certainty evidence). It is uncertain whether PD compared to extracorporeal therapy has any effects on weekly delivered Kt/V (2 studies, 263 participants: MD -2.47, 95% CI -5.17 to 0.22; I² = 99%; very low certainty evidence), correction of acidosis (2 studies, 89 participants: RR 1.32, 95% CI 0.13 to 13.60; I² = 96%; very low certainty evidence), or duration of dialysis (2 studies, 170 participants: MD -1.01 hours, 95% CI -91.49 to 89.47; I² = 98%; very low certainty evidence). Heterogeneity was high and this may be due to the different extracorporeal therapies used.One study (61 participants) reported little or no difference to all-cause mortality, kidney function recovery, or infection between low and high and intensity PD. Weekly delivered Kt/V and fluid removal was lower with low compared to high intensity PD.

Based on moderate (mortality, recovery of kidney function), low (infectious complications), or very low certainty evidence (correction of acidosis) there is probably little or no difference between PD and extracorporeal therapy for treating AKI. Fluid removal (low certainty) and weekly delivered Kt/V (very low certainty) may be higher with extracorporeal therapy.

Patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) are at high risk for developing critical illness and for admission to intensive care units (ICU). 'Critically ill CKD patients' frequently develop an acute worsening of renal function (i.e. acute-on-chronic, AoC) that contributes to long-term kidney dysfunction, potentially leading to end-stage kidney disease (ESKD). An integrated multidisciplinary effort is thus necessary to adequately manage the multi-organ damage of those kidney patients and contemporaneously reduce the progression of kidney dysfunction when they are critically ill. The aim of this review is to describe (1) the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying the development of AoC kidney dysfunction and its role in the progression toward ESKD; (2) the most common clinical presentations of critical illness among CKD/ESKD patients; and (3) the continuum of care for CKD/ESKD patients from maintenance hemodialysis/peritoneal dialysis to acute renal replacement therapy performed in ICU and, vice-versa, for AoC patients who develop ESKD.

Heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) represents at least half of the cases of heart failure, which is a syndrome defined as the inability of the heart to supply the body's tissues with an adequate amount of blood under conditions of normal cardiac filling pressure. HFrEF is responsible for high costs and rates of mortality, morbidity, and hospital admissions, mainly in developed countries. Thus, the need for better diagnostic methods and therapeutic approaches and consequently better outcomes is clear. In this article, we review the principal aspects of pathophysiology and diagnosis of HFrEF, with focus on emerging biomarkers and on recent echocardiographic methods for the assessment of left ventricular function. Furthermore, we discuss several major developments in pharmacological and nonpharmacological treatment of HFrEF in the last years, including cardiac resynchronization therapy, implantable cardioverter defibrillators, and the recent and promising drug LCZ696, focusing on current indications, unanswered questions, and other relevant aspects.

Molecular techniques in transfusion medicine have become popular in the clinical practice of pediatric intensive care units when the patient needs blood purification, more recently, in children in critical condition. Considering the anatomical and physiological characteristics of the child’s body, pronounced severity, and rapid progression of multiple organ disorders, the key problems defining the treatment results are instrument reading, choice and timely initiation of extracorporeal therapy. Today, along with the methods of renal replacement therapy in children albumin dialysis therapy and high-volume plasmapheresis are successfully applied in the treatment of acute liver dysfunction; extracorporeal membrane oxygenation — in the treatment of biventricular cardiac and/or respiratory failure. Selective endotoxin sorption methods (LPS-adsorption) are implemented in the treatment of severe gram-negative sepsis.

The current models of cardiorenal syndrome (CRS) are mainly based on a cardiocentric approach; they assume that worsening renal function is an adverse consequence of the decline in cardiac function rather than a separate and independent pathologic phenomenon. If this assumption were true, then mechanical extraction of fluid (i.e., ultrafiltration therapy) would be expected to portend positive impact on renal hemodynamics and function through improvement in cardio-circulatory physiology and reduction in neurohormonal activation. However, currently available ultrafiltration trials, whether in acute heart failure (AHF) or in CRS, have so far failed to show any improvement in renal function; they have reported no impact or even observed adverse renal outcomes in this setting. Moreover, the presence or absence of renal dysfunction seems to affect the overall safety and efficacy of ultrafiltration therapy in AHF. This manuscript briefly reviews cardiorenal physiology in AHF and concludes that therapeutic options for CRS should not only target cardio-circulatory status of the patients, but they need to also have the ability of addressing the adverse homeostatic consequences of the associated decline in renal function. Peritoneal dialysis (PD) can be such an option for the chronic cases of CRS as it has been shown to provide efficient intracorporeal ultrafiltration and sodium extraction in volume overloaded patients while concurrently correcting the metabolic consequences of diminished renal function. Currently available trials on PD in heart failure have shown the safety and efficacy of this therapeutic modality for patients with chronic CRS and suggest that it could represent a pathophysiologically and conceptually relevant option in this setting.

Peritoneal dialysis (PD) should be considered a suitable method of renal replacement therapy in acute kidney injury (AKI) patients. This study is the largest cohort providing patient characteristics, clinical practice, patterns and their relationship to outcomes in a developing country. Its objective was to describe the main determinants of patient and technique survival, including trends over time of PD treatment in AKI patients. This was a Brazilian prospective cohort study in which all adult AKI patients on PD were studied from January/2004 to January/2014. For comparison purposes, patients were divided into 2 groups according to the year of treatment: 2004-2008 and 2009-2014. Patient survival and technique failure (TF) were analyzed using the competing risk model of Fine and Gray. A total of 301 patients were included, 51 were transferred to hemodialysis (16.9%) during the study period. The main cause of TF was mechanical complication (47%) followed by peritonitis (41.2%). There was change in TF during the study period: compared to 2004-2008, patients treated at 2009-2014 had relative risk (RR) reduction of 0.86 (95% CI 0.77-0.96) and three independent risk factors were identified: period of treatment at 2009 and 2014, sepsis and age> 65 years. There were 180 deaths (59.8%) during the study. Death was the leading cause of dropout (77.9% of all cases) mainly by sepsis (58.3%), followed cardiovascular disease (36.1%). The overall patient survival was 41% at 30 days. Patient survival improved along study periods: compared to 2004-2008, patients treated at 2009-2014 had a RR reduction of 0.87 (95% CI 0.79-0.98). The independent risk factors for mortality were sepsis, age >70 years, ATN-ISS > 0.65 and positive fluid balance. As conclusion, we observed an improvement in patient survival and TF along the years even after correction for several confounders and using a competing risk approach.

Peritoneal dialysis (PD) is a treatment for selected acute kidney injury patients (AKI), but little is known about its metabolic implications. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the metabolic implications of glucose absorption, sodium removal, protein loss into the dialysate, and catabolism in AKI patients undergoing high-volume PD and to identify risk factors associated with those metabolic effects.

A prospective cohort study over 18 consecutive months evaluated 208 sessions of high-volume PD performed in 31 AKI patients. One session of high-volume PD lasted 24 hours. Repeated-measures analysis was performed, and correlations were calculated using the Spearman test for continuous variables and generalized linear models for categorical variables.

Glucose absorption remained at approximately 35.3% ± 10.5% per session. Protein loss measured 4.2 ± 6.1 g daily, with higher values initially, which declined significantly after 2 sessions. Nitrogen balance (NB) was initially negative, but stabilized at approximately zero after 3 sessions. Glucose uptake was positively correlated with the Acute Tubular Necrosis Individual Severity Score [ATNISS (r = 0.21, p = 0.0036)], C-reactive protein (r = 0.26, p = 0.0167), protein loss (r = 0.36, p < 0.0001), and sodium removal (r = 0.24, p = 0.002). Protein loss was positively correlated with sodium removal (r = 0.22, p = 0.0085) and gastrointestinal disease (p = 0.0004). Sodium removal was positively correlated with serum sodium (r = 0.21, p = 0.0064), ATNISS (r = 0.15, p = 0.0411), urea nitrogen appearance [UNA (r = 0.24, p = 0.0019)], and fluid overload as an indication for dialysis (p < 0.0001). Urea nitrogen appearance was positively correlated with the indication for dialysis (electrolyte disturbances: p = 0.0287) and negatively correlated with nephrotoxic AKI (p < 0.0001). Nitrogen balance was negatively correlated with UNA (r = -0.389, p < 0.0001) and ischemic AKI (p = 0.0047).

High-volume PD did not increase hypercatabolism in AKI patients, and protein loss and glucose uptake remained constant during treatment. Those parameters were influenced by the clinical condition of the patients, including the cause of AKI, inflammation, and comorbidities-factors that should be known before the prescription of dialysis and nutrition, thus avoiding metabolic complications such as hyperglycemia, hypernatremia, and worsening catabolism.

During the 1970s and 1980s, peritoneal dialysis (PD) was widely accepted as the standard treatment for acute kidney injury (AKI). However, advances in the techniques of extracorporeal blood purification gradually reduced its use, making PD an underused modality in this context. Although PD for AKI is an underutilized modality worldwide, it is frequently used in developing countries because of its lower cost and minimal infrastructure requirements. Recent studies have shown that PD administered continuously through a flexible catheter and cycler is an effective treatment in AKI because it ensures adequate fluid status and metabolic control. However, the use of PD in AKI has several limitations, such as the need for an intact peritoneal cavity and, in emergency situations such as severe fluid overload and severe hyperkalemia, an efficacy that is lower than that with extracorporeal blood purification techniques. Metabolic, infectious, and mechanical disorders related to PD are also limitations.Among the metabolic complications of PD are hyperglycemia, hypernatremia, protein loss into the dialysate, and hypercatabolism. Hyperglycemia is caused by the use of dialysate containing high concentrations of glucose. Hypernatremia is a result of short dialysate dwell times during the rapid exchanges of high-volume PD. Protein loss into the dialysate can reach 48 g daily, worsening the nutrition status of patients already depleted by AKI. Severe hypercatabolism caused by PD remains controversial and occurs because PD methods cannot provide an adequate dialysis dose for AKI patients.Few studies have assessed the metabolic implications of PD in AKI patients. Evaluation of these implications is relatively simple, imposes no additional costs, and can provide information about the severity of the disease. Evaluation could also guide the selection of therapeutic, dialytic, and nutrition measures, preventing metabolic complications. The present manuscript describes the metabolic implications of PD and reviews the literature on how to prevent metabolic complications.

To observe the outcomes of AKI following multiple wasp stings.

Eighty-one patients (mean age ± SD, 45.5 ± 14.7 years; 55 men and 26 women; mean Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II score, 16.85 ± 2.78) with AKI following multiple wasp stings between 1997 and 2011 were retrospectively analyzed. Data on their demographic characteristics, initial modalities of renal replacement therapy (RRT), urine output, serum creatinine, bilirubin, myoglobin, and other variables were collected. Renal outcomes included complete recovery of kidney function, CKD, and death. Subgroup analysis was performed according to initial modality of RRT in the first 48 hours, including continuous veno-venous hemofiltration (CVVH), intermittent hemodialysis (IHD), and CVVH plus plasma exchange (PE).

Of the 75 patients available for follow-up, 7 (9.3%) died, and 8 (10.7%, all in the IHD group) developed CKD. The average RRT time was 18.2 ± 8.4 days, and the average kidney function recovery time was 36.0 (29.0, 41.0) days. Subgroup analysis showed no difference in the mortality rates between the CVVH, CVVH + PE, and IHD groups (8.0%, 7.1%, and 11.1%, respectively; P>0.99). The recovery time for kidney function was significantly shorter in the CVVH and CVVH + PE groups than in the IHD group (31.9 ± 8.5 days, 28.6 ± 9.4 days, and 41.6 ± 8.1 days, respectively; P<0.001).

This is a large case series report on the outcomes of patients with AKI following multiple wasp stings. Most patients survived with complete recovery of their kidney function. Despite the lack of difference in mortality rates, the patients who began RRT with CVVH and CVVH + PE experienced a better and more rapid recovery of kidney function than those initiated with IHD.