Heart rate is an independent predictor of all-cause mortality in individuals with type 2 diabetes: The diabetes heart study

Table 1 Baseline characteristics of participants in the diabetes heart study

Characteristics	All (n = 1315)	< Median RHR (n = 652)	≥ Median HR (n = 663)	P value
Age (yr)	61.4 (9.2)	62.2 (9.3)	60.6 (9.1)	0.0015
Caucasian (%)	1113 (84.6)	557 (85.4)	556 (83.9)
African American (%)	202 (15.4)	95 (14.6)	107 (16.1)
Women (%)	735 (55.9)	323 (49.5)	412 (62.1)
BMI (kg/m2)	32.0 (6.6)	31.0 (6.5)	33.0 (6.5)	< 0.0001
Current smoker (%)	234 (17.9)	98 (15.1)	136 (20.6)	0.1336
Ex-smoker (%)	541 (41.3)	296 (45.7)	245 (37.2)	0.0223
Diabetes duration (yr)	10.4 (7.04)	10.0 (7.0)	10.7 (7.1)	0.0953
Systolic BP (mmHg)	139.4 (19.4)	139.1 (19.1)	139.7 (19.7)	0.5661
Diastolic BP (mmHg)	73.4 (10.4)	72.6 (10.1)	74.2 (10.6)	0.0044
Hypertension (%)	1116 (84.9)	543 (83.3)	573 (86.4)	0.1118
Prior CVD (%)	397 (30.7)	218 (33.7)	179 (27.6)	0.0161
HbA1c (%)	7.4 (1.9)	7.1 (1.67)	7.7 (2.1)	< 0.0001
Glucose (g/L)	1.4 (0.6)	1.3 (0.5)	1.5 (0.7)	< 0.0001
Total cholesterol (g/L)	1.8 (0.5)	1.8 (0.4)	1.9 (0.5)	0.0006
HDL (g/L)	0.44 (0.1)	0.4 (0.1)	0.4 (0.1)	0.7662
LDL (g/L)	1.0 (0.4)	1.0 (0.3)	1.05 (0.4)	0.2616
Triglycerides (g/L)	1.8 (1.2)	1.7 (1.1)	2.0 (1.3)	< 0.0001
eGFR (mL/min × 1.73 m2)	67.9 (20.5)	68.2 (20.0)	67.7 (20.9)	0.6865
RHR (bpm)	69.8 (11.9)	60.2 (5.6)	79.3 (8.4)	< 0.0001

RHR: Resting heart rate; BMI: Body mass index; CVD: Cardiovascular diseases; HDL: High density lipoprotein; LDL: Low density lipoprotein; eGFR: Estimated glomerular filtration rate.

Table 2 Association between 1- standard deviation of resting heart rate with mortality in the diabetes heart study in cox proportional hazard models after a median follow-up of 8.5 years

Models	Hazard ratio	95%CI	P value
All-cause mortality (model)
1	1.16	1.03-1.31	0.0151
2	1.26	1.12-1.42	0.0020
3	1.15	1.01-1.32	0.0355
4	1.20	1.05-1.37	0.0079
Cardiovascular mortality (model)
1	1.19	0.98-1.43	0.0688
2	1.29	1.07-1.54	0.0073
3	1.14	0.93-1.40	0.2164
4	1.19	0.97-1.47	0.0975

Model 1: Unadjusted; Model 2: Adjusted for age, sex, ethnicity; Model 3: Model 2 + body mass index, hemoglobin A1c, diabetes duration, systolic blood pressure, hypertension, total cholesterol level, triglyceride level, current smoking status, estimated glomerular filtration rate; Model 4: Model 3 + baseline cardiovascular diseases history.