Progress of traditional Chinese medicine in the prevention and treatment of colorectal cancer

Table 1 The role and characteristics of common metal nanomaterials

Metal	Metal nanomaterials	Role of nanomaterials	Characteristics of nanomaterials	Ref.
Au	AuNPs spheres	Cytotoxicity: AuNPs stars were the most toxic, while AuNPs spheres were the least toxic. Induction of apoptosis. Drug delivery. Photothermal therapy	Small size, large specific surface area, good biocompatibility. The optical properties and cytotoxicity are shape and size dependent. Strong penetration	[19]
	AuNPs rods
	AuNPs stars
	AuNPs	Cytotoxicity. Surface plasmon resonance: AuNPs have a strong surface plasmon resonance effect, which can be detected by ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy. Medium or drug carrier for photothermal therapy	Size dependence. Biocompatibility. Cell uptake efficiency is size-dependent	[20]
	AuNPs	Enhance the effect of hyperthermia. Enhance the effect of chemotherapy. Combined therapy: AuNPs showed synergistic effect when combined with microwave hyperthermia and chemotherapy	Size dependence. Good biocompatibility. Photothermal conversion capability. Drug delivery potential	[21]
	Ph-AuNPs	Antitumor activity. Cytotoxicity. Cell cycle arrest. Induction of apoptosis	Small and uniform size. Good biocompatibility. Surface modification. High stability. Environmental protection and low cost	[22]
	“Hedgehog ball” shaped nanoprobes (Fe3O4@Au-pep-CQDs)	Detection of inflammatory markers. Multimodal imaging. Tumor microenvironment monitoring	Multi-modal detection capability. Magnetic separation function. High sensitivity and specificity. Good biocompatibility. Targeting	[23]
	Glycogenic AuNPs	Anticancer activity. Good biocompatibility. Cellular uptake	Controllable size. Surface modification. Selective toxicity. Fluorescence characteristics	[24]
	Protein-coated AuNPs	Drug carrier. Fluorescent labeling diagnosis. Enhanced cellular uptake	Controllable size and surface charge. Good biocompatibility. High cellular uptake efficiency	[25]
	B-AuNPs conjugated CIS and DOX	Drug delivery. Enhance drug stability. Reduce side effects	Good biocompatibility and low toxicity. Surface chemical properties can be adjusted. Capable of loading a large number of drug molecules. It can accumulate in tumor tissues	[26]
	Au-GSH NPs	Inhibition of tumor cell extravasation. No toxicity. Enhanced cellular uptake and accumulation	Small size, good dispersion and stability. Negatively charged surface, which facilitates cellular uptake. No toxicity	[27]
	AuNR@SiO2	Chemotherapy: DOX loading. Photothermal therapy. Anti-angiogenesis. Targeted delivery	Photothermal response. Drug carrier. Targeting. Adjustable degradation	[29]
	AuNPs functionalized carborane complex	BNCT treatment. Imaging and diagnosis. Drug delivery	Good biocompatibility. Targeting. Photothermal response. Adjustable water solubility	[30]
	PtU2-AuNPs	Drug delivery. Enhanced cytotoxicity. Targeted therapy	Biocompatibility. Drug carrier function. Enhanced cellular uptake. Enhanced cytotoxicity	[31]
	Au@MMSN-Ald	Bone-targeted therapy. Integrated chemotherapy and chemodynamic therapy. Dual-modality imaging. Responsive drug release	Versatility. Efficient drug release in the tumor microenvironment. Efficient targeting ability. Imaging ability	[32]
Ag	AgNPs	Antibacterial effect. Cytotoxicity. Induction of oxidative stress. Cell cycle regulation	High surface area. Quantum size effect. Surface effect. Size and shape dependence. Good biocompatibility	[33]
	AgNPs	Cytotoxicity. Antibacterial effect. Induction of apoptosis. Affect the cell cycle. Oxidative stress induction	High surface area. Quantum size effect. Surface effect. Size and shape dependence. Good biocompatibility. Cellular uptake capacity. Induction of oxidative stress	[34]
	AgNPs	Cytotoxicity. Antibacterial effect. Induction of apoptosis. Affect the cell cycle. Oxidative stress induction. Genotoxicity. Drug delivery vehicles	High surface area. Quantum size effect. Surface effect. Size and shape dependence. Good biocompatibility. Cellular uptake capacity. Induction of oxidative stress. Cell-specific responses	[35]
	AgNPs synthesized from plant extracts	Antimicrobial activity. Anti-proliferative activity. Drug delivery. Bioimaging	High surface area. Quantum size effect. Surface effect. Size and shape dependence. Good biocompatibility. Versatility. Environmentally friendly. Diversity of antimicrobial mechanisms	[36]
	AgNPs synthesized from leaf extracts	Antimicrobial activity. Anti-proliferative activity. Drug delivery. Bioimaging. Antioxidant activity	High surface area. Quantum size effect. Surface effect. Size and shape dependence. Good biocompatibility. Versatility. Environmentally friendly. Diversity of antimicrobial mechanisms	[37]
	AgNPs synthesized from grapefruit extracts	Antimicrobial activity. Anti-proliferative activity. Drug delivery. Bioimaging. Antioxidant activity	High surface area. Quantum size effect. Surface effect. Size and shape dependence. Good biocompatibility. Versatility. Environmentally friendly. Diversity of antimicrobial mechanisms	[38]
	AgNPs and cAgNPs synthesized by Bacillus cereus	Antimicrobial activity. Anti-proliferative activity. Drug delivery. Bioimaging. Induction of apoptosis. Reduced normal cytotoxicity	High surface area. Quantum size effect. Surface effect. Size and shape dependence. Good biocompatibility. Versatility. Environmentally friendly. Diversity of antimicrobial mechanisms	[39]
	AgNPs coating	Antibacterial property. Biocompatibility. Drug release. Surface modification	Size effect. Surface activity. Concentration dependence. Shape dependence	[40]
	f-HAp/PVP/Ag NPs	Antibacterial property. Biocompatibility. Drug release. Surface modification	Size effect. Surface can be modified. Concentration dependence. Shape dependence	[41]
Cu	Cu-Fe3O4 NCs-AS-ALG	Catalytic activity. Enhanced oxidative stress. Induction of apoptosis. Targeted delivery. Good biocompatibility	High surface area. Surface activity. Surface can be modified. Concentration dependence. Shape dependence	[42]
	Cu-Cy NPs	Photodynamic therapy. Antitumor activity. Reactive ROS generation	High surface area. Photosensitive characteristics: Microwave activation. Good biocompatibility. Versatility: Combined thermal and chemical effects	[43]
Fe	“Hedgehog ball” shaped nanoprobes (Fe3O4@Au-pep-CQDs)	Detection of inflammatory markers. Multimodal imaging. Tumor microenvironment monitoring	Multi-modal detection capability. Magnetic separation function. High sensitivity and specificity. Good biocompatibility. Targeting	[23]
	Cu-Fe3O4 NCs-AS-ALG	Catalytic activity. Enhanced oxidative stress. Induction of apoptosis. Targeted delivery. Good biocompatibility	High surface area. Surface activity. Surface can be modified. Concentration dependence. Shape dependence	[42]
	Zn-Fe3O4 NPsCo-Fe3O4NPs	Magnetic moment and magnetic anisotropy. Magnetic heating effect. Cell labeling and imaging. Drug delivery. Cell therapy. Good biocompatibility. Ion release. Cytotoxicity	High surface area. Surface activity. Concentration dependence. Magnetic properties. Shape dependence. Surface modification. Stability	[44]
	Carbon-coated iron oxide NPs	Contrast enhancement on MRI. Drug delivery. Magnetic heating therapy. Cell isolation and labeling. Cell viability and toxicity	High surface area. Surface activity. Size dependence. Concentration dependence. Good biocompatibility. Shape dependence. Surface modification. Stability	[45]
	Iron oxide NPs (IO-cage and IO-sphere)	Enhance drug loading. Enhance drug stability. Targeted therapy. Induction of apoptosis. Reduce tumor volume. Bioluminescence imaging. Immune escape	High surface area. Shape effect. Surface modification. Stability. Targeting. Good biocompatibility	[46]
	Fe3O4 NPs	Endocytosis promoted by electrical stimulation. MRI signal enhancement. Cell labeling and tracking. Magnetic heating therapy. Drug delivery	High surface area. Shape affects the endocytic mechanism. Surface modification. Targeting. Enhancing effect of electrical stimulation	[47]
	Superparamagnetic iron oxide NPs	Biomedical imaging. Magnetic thermotherapy. Biosensing and diagnostics. Support for tissue repair and regeneration. Fight infections	Small size effect. Surface effect. Quantum size effect. Macroscopic quantum tunneling. Good biocompatibility. Adjustability	[48]
	FeHA and Mag@CaP NPs	Enhanced MRI and ultrasound imaging. Drug carrier. Bone tissue repair and regeneration. Biosensors. Fight infections	Small size effect. Surface effect. Quantum size effect. Versatility. Good biocompatibility. Adjustability	[49]
	Fe3O4@ZIF-8 NPs	Improve drug targeting. Enhance drug stability. Ph-responsive release. Enhanced MRI and optical imaging. Chemotherapy intensification. Bone tissue repair and regeneration	Small size effect. Surface effect. Quantum size effect. Versatility. Good biocompatibility. Adjustability	[50]
	HA@MOF/D-Arg NPs	Improve drug targeting. Enhance drug stability. Ph-responsive release. Enhanced MRI imaging. Enhanced chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Alleviate tumor hypoxia. Bone tissue repair and regeneration	Small size effect. Surface effect. Quantum size effect. Versatility. Good biocompatibility. Adjustability	[51]
	D-Arg/GOX/TPZ@PDA/MOF NPs	Improve drug targeting. Enhance the efficacy of medications. Ph-responsive release. Enhanced MRI imaging. Enhanced chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Starvation therapy. Gas therapy. Bone tissue repair and regeneration	Small size effect. Surface effect. Quantum size effect. Versatility. Good biocompatibility. Adjustability	[52]
	FePt/MnO2@PEG NPs	Improve drug targeting. Prolong the drug circulation time. Enhanced MRI imaging. Radiotherapy enhancement. Alleviate tumor hypoxia. Induction of ferroptosis	Small size effect. Surface effect. Quantum size effect. Versatility. Good biocompatibility. Adjustability	[53]
	BTZ/TA/Fe3+ NPs	Improve drug stability. Control drug release. Enhance the efficacy of medications. Reduce side effects. Improve drug delivery efficiency	pH sensitivity. High drug loading efficiency and drug loading capacity. Good biocompatibility. Stability. Adjustability	[54]
	FeS2@CP NPs	Photothermal therapy. Chemo-dynamic therapy. Collaborative therapy. Tumor microenvironment responsiveness	Efficient Fenton catalytic activity. High photothermal conversion efficiency. Good biocompatibility. Versatility. Degradability	[55]
Ca	HA-BSA-PTX NPs	Cytotoxicity. Cell cycle arrest. Inhibition of cell migration and invasion. Promote osteoblast differentiation. Regulation of osteogenic gene expression. Reduce systemic toxicity	Efficient drug loading and release. Good biocompatibility and degradability. Versatility	[56]
	CaF2:Eu NPs	Enhance the effect of adjuvant radiotherapy. DNA damage. Inhibition of tumor growth. Reduce tumor recurrence and metastasis	Photoluminescence characteristics. Good biocompatibility. Selective toxicity. Radioenhancement characteristics	[57]
Zn	ZnO NPs	Induction of apoptosis. Induction of autophagy. Oxidative stress and cell death. Interaction between autophagy and apoptosis	Stability. Good biocompatibility. Zinc ion release characteristics. Effect on cell cycle. Selective toxicity	[58]
	ZnO NPs	Ultrasound-assisted water oxidation. ROS generation. Inhibition of tumor cell growth. Induction of apoptosis	Crystallinity. Optical properties. Piezoelectric characteristics. Catalytic activity. Surface modification and reactivity	[59]
	ZnO NPs	ROS production. Induction of apoptosis. Antitumor activity	Crystallinity. Optical properties. Green synthesis, environmental protection and low cost. Surface chemical properties	[60]
	ZnTiO3 NPs	Antibacterial. ROS generation. Cytotoxicity	Broad-spectrum antibacterial activity. Mechanical properties. Good biocompatibility	[61]
	Ti-ZnO-PBA-NG NPs	Antibacterial. Increased intracellular ROS levels. Induction of tumor cell apoptosis. Inhibition of tumor cell proliferation. Promote the proliferation and differentiation of osteoblasts	pH responsiveness. Antibacterial property. Anti-tumor properties. Good biocompatibility. Surface modification	[62]
	ZnO NPs synthesized from Rehmannia	Anticancer activity. Induction of apoptosis. ROS production. Mitochondrial membrane potential changes	Green synthesis. Good biocompatibility. Crystal structure. Bioactive ingredients. Photocatalytic activity	[63]
Ti	TiO2 NPs	Acoustic catalytic activity. ROS produced. Inhibition of tumor cell growth and proliferation	Semiconductor properties. Amorphous structure. Optical inertia	[59]
	ZnTiO3 NPs	Antibacterial. ROS generation. Cytotoxicity	Broad-spectrum antibacterial activity. Mechanical properties. Good biocompatibility	[61]
	TiO2 NPs	Induction of cytotoxicity. ROS production. Decrease GSH levels	Large surface area. Semiconductor properties. Good biocompatibility. Photocatalytic activity	[69]
	TiO2 NPs	Photocatalytic activity. Efficient generation of ROS under microwave. Selective toxicity. Microwave induced photodynamic therapy. Inhibition of osteosarcoma tumor growth	Clear lattice stripes. Surface charge. Good biocompatibility. Stability	[70]
	TiO2 NPs	Broad-spectrum antibacterial property. Cytotoxicity. Photocatalytic performance	Green synthesis, low environmental protection cost. Tetragonal crystal structure. Optical properties. Chemical stability	[71]
	TiO2 NPs	Broad-spectrum antibacterial property. Antitumor activity. ROS production. Application of bioanalog scaffolds. Biological activity. Mechanical properties. Protein adsorption capacity	Anatase phase structure of tetragonal crystal system. Low environmental cost. Photocatalytic activity. Thermal stability	[72]
	Fluorescent TiO2 NPs	Broad-spectrum antibacterial property. ROS produced. Drug carrier. Intracellular drug tracking and fluorescence imaging	Green synthesis, low environmental protection cost. Surface charge. Fluorescence characteristics. High drug load	[73]
	F-TiO2/P and F-TiO2/PC	Photothermal effect and photocatalytic effect. ROS production. Promote osteogenic differentiation. Antitumor activity	Good photothermal stability. Good photocatalytic performance. Hydrophilicity. Multifunctional integration. Surface modification	[74]
	TiO2 NPs	Photocatalytic degradation. Cytotoxicity. Photodynamic therapy. Antibacterial property. Oxidative stress	Photocatalytic activity. High specific surface area. Be versatile	[75]
	Folic acid modified TiO2 NPs	Cytotoxicity. Generation of ROS. Induction of apoptosis. Enhanced cellular uptake	Good dispersion. Tumor targeting. Surface charge	[76]
Pt	PtU2-AuNPs	Drug delivery. Enhanced cytotoxicity. Targeted therapy	Biocompatibility. Drug carrier function. Enhanced cellular uptake. Enhanced cytotoxicity	[31]
	FePt/MnO2@PEG NPs	Improve drug targeting. Prolong the drug circulation time. Enhanced MRI imaging. Radiotherapy enhancement. Alleviate tumor hypoxia. Induction of ferroptosis	Small size effect. Surface effect. Quantum size effect. Versatility. Good biocompatibility. Adjustability	[53]
	ALN-PtIV-Lipo	Enhance the effect of chemotherapy. Inhibits bone destruction. Targeted delivery. Drug accumulation. Tumor growth inhibition	Stability. Targeting. Good biological safety. Drug release	[77]
Sr	Sr-HA NPs	Promote bone regeneration. Improve cell activity. Drug delivery	Stability. Surface charge. Good biocompatibility	[78]
Ir	IrO2@ZIF-8/BSA-FA	Photothermal therapy. Photodynamic therapy. Improve the efficiency of cancer treatment. Tumor targeting. Alleviate tumor hypoxia	Versatility. Photothermal conversion capability. Catalase like activity. Targeting. High drug loading capacity. Dual pH/NIR responsiveness. Good biocompatibility	[90]
	BSA-IrO2 NPs	Chemotherapy drug carrier. Photothermal therapy. Collaborative therapy. Increase circulation time. Tumor targeting	Stability. Photothermal conversion capability. High drug loading capacity. Dual pH/NIR responsiveness. Good biocompatibility	[91]

BNCT: Boron neutron capture therapy; MRI: Magnetic resonance imaging; ROS: Reactive oxygen species; GSH: Glutathione.