Immunomodulatory effects and clinical application of exosomes derived from mesenchymal stem cells

Table 1 Applications of exosomes from different sources in various diseases

Source cell	Disease	Effect	Year	Ref.
Bone marrow mesenchymal stromal cells	Acute kidney injury	Promote renal tubular epithelial cell regeneration	2017	[42]
Mesenchymal stem cells	Ischemic myocardium	Cardioprotection	2015	[43]
Bone marrow mesenchymal stromal/stem cell	Acute graft-versus-host disease	Prolonged the survival of acute graft-versus-host disease mice and reduced pathological damage in multiple graft-versus-host disease target organs	2018	[52]
Tumor	Colorectal cancer	Promote liver metastasis	2020	[53]
Mesenchymal stromal cells	Myocardial ischaemia-reperfusion	Attenuate myocardial ischaemia-reperfusion injury	2019	[54]
Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells	Acute lung injury	Ameliorate LPS-induced acute lung injury	2024	[56]
M1 macrophages	Tumor	Enhance antitumor immunity to inhibit tumor growth	2021	[57]
Mesenchymal stem cells	Multiple sclerosis	Reduce demyelination, decrease neuroinflammation, and increase the number of regulatory T cells in the spinal cord of EAE mice	2019	[63]
Mesenchymal stem cells	Acquired aplastic anemia	Play a key role in immune dysregulation	2023	[65]
Hypoxic mesenchymal stem cells	Bone fracture	Promote bone fracture healing	2020	[66]
Mesenchymal stem cells	Osteochondral defects	Mediate cartilage repair	2018	[67]
Mesenchymal stem cells	Temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis	Alleviate temporomandibular joint osteoarthritis	2019	[69]
Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells	Ulcerative colitis	Alleviate ulcerative colitis	2019	[74]
Mesenchymal stem cells	Ischemia/reperfusion injury	Alleviate ischemia/reperfusion injury	2019	[78]
Mesenchymal stromal cells	Pulmonary fibrosis	Alleviated the core features of pulmonary fibrosis and lung inflammation	2019	[79]
Umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells	Nerve injury-induced pain	Possess anti-inflammatory and neurotrophic abilities	2019	[80]
Mesenchymal stem cells	Intrauterine adhesion	Modify intrauterine adhesion	2022	[81]
Bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells	Prostate cancer	Restrained prostate cancer	2022	[89]
Wharton jelly-derived mesenchymal stem cells	Cervical cancer	As drug delivery systems for cervical cancer	2022	[90]
Olfactory ecto-mesenchymal stem cells	Murine Sjögren’s syndrome	Ameliorate murine Sjögren’s syndrome	2021	[96]
Mesenchymal stem cells	Autoimmune uveoretinitis	Inhibit activation of antigen-presenting cells and suppress development of T helper 1 and 17 cells	2017	[97]
Mesenchymal stem cells	Islet transplantation	Improve islet transplantation	2016	[103]
Dendritic cells	Liver transplantation	Negatively regulate CD8+ T cells via inhibition of NLRP3	2022	[104]
Endothelial cells	ARDS	Modulate the therapeutic efficacy of mesenchymal stem cells through IDH2/TET pathway in ARDS	2024	[107]

LPS: Lipopolysaccharide; NLRP3: Nucleotide-binding domain, leucine-rich repeat, and pyrin domain-containing protein 3; ARDS: Acute respiratory distress syndrome; IDH2: Isocitrate dehydrogenase 2; TET: Ten-eleven translocation.