Dental stem cells: The role of biomaterials and scaffolds in developing novel therapeutic strategies

Table 1 Dental stem cells obtained from different sources exhibit various patterns of cell surface markers

Markers	DPSCs	SCEDT	PLSCs	DFSCs	SCAP
Nestin	+	+	+	+
Vimentin	+	+			+
SOX2	+		+	+	+
SOX10	+		+
Stro-1	+	+	+	+	+
Oct-4	+	+	+	+	+
EphB	+
Nanog	+	+	+		+
CD10			+	+
CD13	+	+	+	+	+
CD14	+	+	+
CD19	+
CD24	+				+
CD25				+
CD29	+	+	+	+	+
CD34	+	+	+	+	+
CD44	+	+	+	+	+
CD45	+	+	+	+	+
CD49					+
CD53				+
CD59	+		+	+
CD73	+	+	+	+	+
CD90	+	+	+	+	+
CD105	+	+	+	+	+
CD106					+
CD117	+
CD146	+	+		+	+
CD150					+
CD166		+			+
CD271	+		+
SSEA-3		+
SSEA-4		+
TWIST-1	+
c-myc		+		+
Notch				+	+
3G5	+
Klf-4			+
FlK1	+	+

DPSCs: Dental pulp stem cells; SCEDT: Stem cells obtained from exfoliated deciduous teeth; PLSCs: Periodontal ligament stem cells; DFSCs: Dental follicle stem cells; SCAP: Stem cells obtained from apical papilla.

Table 2 A vast number of these investigations indicate the importance of various scaffolds to design effective tissue engineering approaches

Scaffold	Growth factors/bioactive molecules	Experimental model	Target tissue	Ref.
Silicon	-	In vitro	Teeth	[168]
Collagen sponge	SCF	In vitro and in vivo (mice)	Teeth	[126]
Collagen type I and type III	SDF-1	In vivo (dogs)	Teeth	[91]
Collagen type-I and N-acetic acid	SDF-1, bFGF, BMP-7	In vitro and in vivo (rats)	Teeth	[120]
Collagen/chitsosan	-	In vitro	-	[129]
Collagen-polyvinylpyrrolidone sponge	-	Case report	Teeth	[144]
Silk fibroin	SDF-1	In vitro and in vivo (mice)	Teeth	[123]
Acellular dental pulp ECM	-	In vivo (mice)	Teeth	[108]
Intrafibrillar-silicified collagen	-	In vitro and in vivo (mice)	Teeth	[169]
Matrigel	bFGF-2, TGF-β1	In vitro	-	[121]
Peptide hydrogel	VEGF, TGF-β1, FGF-1	In vivo (mice)	Teeth	[118]
Gelatin methacrylate hydrogel	-	In vivo (rats)	Teeth	[133]
PuraMatrix™	VEGF	In vivo (mice)	Teeth	[134]
Poly-ε-caprolactone and hydroxyapatite	SDF-1, BMP-7	In vitro and in vivo (rats)	Teeth	[124]
Polycaprolactone-poly-glycolic acid	BMP-7	In vitro and in vivo (mice)	Teeth	[97]
Thermoresponsive hydrogel	-	In vitro and in vivo (mice)	Teeth	[111]
DL-lactide/co-polymer of L-lactide /DL-lactide, and hydroxyapatite tricalcium phosphate	BMP-2	In vitro and in vivo (mice)	Teeth	[132]
3D hydroxyapatite scaffolds containing peptide hydrogels	-	In vivo (mice)	Teeth	[112]
Poly-lactic-co-glycolic acid	-	In vitro and in vivo (mice)	Teeth	[104]
Beta-tricalcium phosphate scaffold	BMP-2	In vitro and in vivo (mice)	Teeth	[131]
Collagen sponge	-	Clinical trial	Bone	[153]
Collagen sponge	-	Clinical trial	Bone	[151]
Collagen sponge	-	Clinical trial	Bone	[152]
Chitosan/gelatin	BMP-2	In vitro and in vivo (mice)	Bone	[92]
Arginine-glycine-aspartic acid	-	In vitro and in vivo (mice)	Bone	[141]
Granular 3D chitosan	-	In vitro	Neural tissue	[193]
Matrigel	BMP-9	In vitro and in vivo (mice)	Bone	[180]
3D nano-fibrous gelatin/silica bioactive glass hybrid	-	In vitro	Teeth	[107]
3D gel collagen matrix	BMP-2	In vitro and in vivo (rats)	Bone	[177]
Poly-ε-caprolactone biphasic calcium phosphate	-	In vitro and in vivo (rabbit)	Bone	[160]
Glass nanoparticles/chitosan-gelatin	-	In vitro and in vivo (rats)	Bone	[159]
3D poly-lactide	Extracellular vesicles	In vitro and in vivo (rats)	Bone	[179]
2D monolayer culture/3D poly lactic-co-glycolic	-	In vitro	Bone	[174]
Dense collagen gel or acellular	-	In vivo (rats)	Bone	[150]
Calcium phosphate cement functionalized with iron oxide nanoparticles	-	In vitro	Bone	[166]
Poly-lactic-co-glycolic acid	-	In vitro and in vivo (rats)	Bone	[164]
Hydroxyapatite-collagen sponge	-	Clinical trial	Bone	[146]
3D porous chitosan	bFGF	In vitro	Neural tissue	[201]
Fibrin and collagen	-	In vivo (rats)	Sciatic nerves	[9]
Collagen	Tetracycline	In vivo (mice)	Sciatic nerves	[206]
Collagen	-	In vitro and in vivo (rats)	Sciatic nerves	[210]
3D alginate/hyaluronic acid	NGF	In vitro and in vivo (mice)	Peripheral nerves	[207]
Collagen sponge (DSCs condition medium)	-	In vitro and in vivo (rats)	Facial nerves	[211]
3D bio-printing of scaffold-free nervous tissue	-	In vitro and in vivo (rats)	Facial nerves	[208]
Chitosan	-	In vitro and in vivo (rats)	Spinal cord	[198]
Aligned electrospun poly-ε-caprolactone/ poly-lactide-co-glycolic acid	-	In vitro and in vivo (rats)	Spinal cord	[202]

bFGF: Basic fibroblast growth factor; BMP: Bone morphogenetic protein; NGF: Nerve growth factor; SDF: Stromal cell-derived factor; SCF: Stem cell factor; TGF-β: Transforming growth factor beta; VEGF: Vascular endothelial growth factor; DSCs: Dental stem cells; BMP: Bone morphogenetic protein; ECM: Extracellular matrix.