Potential of dental pulp stem cells and their products in promoting peripheral nerve regeneration and their future applications

Figure 3 Treatment of peripheral nerve injury by cell/acellular therapies involving dental pulp stem cells. A: Dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs) can directly differentiate into nerve cells or endothelial cells and can also protect nerves and promote nerve regeneration through paracrine neurotrophic factors; B: DPSCs can treat peripheral nerve injury (PNI) by promoting vascular regeneration, axonal regeneration, and myelin sheath repair, regulating the immune response, and inhibiting inflammation; C: Exosomes, lysates, and conditioned media from DPSCs are also effective in treating PNI. The figure was created with BioRender.com. DPSC: Dental pulp stem cell; NGF: Nerve growth factor; BDNF: Brain-derived neurotrophic factor; GDNF: Glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor; NTF3: Neurotrophic factor 3.