Immunomodulatory effects and clinical application of exosomes derived from mesenchymal stem cells

Figure 1 Exocytosis of exosomes derived from mesenchymal stem cells. The diagram illustrates the process of exosome biogenesis: From early endosomes to multivesicular bodies, and finally the secretion of exosomes containing various components such as nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, cell adhesion molecules, and transmembrane proteins. MSC: Mesenchymal stem cells.

Figure 2 Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes regulate immune responses in diseases through different cytokines. PGE2: Prostaglandin E2; IL-6: Interleukin 6; TGF-β: Transforming growth factor-beta; TNF-α: Tumour necrosis factor-alpha; IL-10: Interleukin-10; NO: Nitric oxide; DC: Dendritic cell.