Consequences of bullying victimization in childhood and adolescence: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Table 4 Associations between bullying victimization and academic and social functioning

	Data points	Pooled OR	95%CI lower bound	95%CI upper bound	Cochran’s Q	I² (%)	Test for heterogeneity (P value)
Poor school functioning
Pooling all	6	1.10	0.87	1.38	82	93.9	< 0.01
Study type
Retrospective/cross-sectional	3	1.24	1.22	1.27	0.33	0	0.85
Prospective cohort	3	0.90	0.76	1.08	8.15	75.46	0.02
Severity of bullying
Sometimes	1	0.96	0.88	1.04	-	-	-
Frequent	1	0.98	0.76	1.19	-	-	-
Academic achievement
Poor academic achievement
Pooling all	6	1.33	1.06	1.66	11.17	55.25	0.02
Study type
Retrospective/cross-sectional	6	1.33	1.06	1.66	11.17	55.25	0.02
Good academic achievement
Pooling all	4	0.71	0.60	0.85	8.81	65.97	0.07
Study type
Retrospective/cross-sectional	3	0.86	0.8	0.92	2.89	30.69	0.58
Prospective cohort	1	0.46	0.28	0.76	-	-	-
Sex
Male	2	1.24	0.88	1.74	2.49	59.8	0.65
Female	2	1.32	0.99	1.75	1.4	28.7	0.84
Severity of bullying
Sometimes	1	0.88	0.83	0.93	-	-	-
Frequent	1	0.80	0.70	0.93	-	-	-
Poor financial and occupational functioning
Pooling all prospective cohort	16	1.14	0.87	1.50	92.97	83.86	< 0.01
Severity of bullying
Sometimes	3	1.00	0.9	1.11	0.04	0	0.98
Frequent	3	0.81	0.61	1.07	2.68	25.32	0.26
Social isolation
Loneliness
Pooling all	13	1.89	1.39	2.57	3120.66	99.62	< 0.01
Study type
Retrospective/cross-sectional	13	1.89	1.39	2.57	3120.66	99.62	< 0.01
Sex
Male	4	2.58	1.62	4.10	222.21	98.65	< 0.01
Female	3	3.92	1.95	7.90	19.53	89.76	< 0.01
Severity of bullying
Sometimes	2	2.09	1.98	2.20	0.39	0	0.53
Frequent	4	4.12	2.24	7.60	23.32	87.13	< 0.01
Self esteem
Pooling all	14	0.99	0.92	1.07	93.73	86.13	< 0.01
Study type
Retrospective/cross-sectional	4	1.13	0.83	1.54	76.58	96.08	< 0.01
Prospective cohort	10	0.97	0.93	1.01	12.32	26.93	0.2
Sex
Male	5	0.96	0.88	1.06	20.65	80.63	< 0.01
Female	4	0.95	0.88	1.03	5.74	47.7	0.13
Severity of bullying
Sometimes	5	0.99	0.95	1.04	1.61	0	0.81
Frequent	5	0.95	0.87	1.04	9.65	58.54	0.05
Social problems
Pooling all	22	1.02	0.74	1.42	427.13	95.08	< 0.01
Study type
Retrospective/cross-sectional	5	2.86	1.42	5.76	38.09	89.5	< 0.01
Prospective cohort	17	0.89	0.74	1.06	72.36	77.89	< 0.01
Sex
Male	1	2.89	1.45	5.73	-	-	-
Female	1	8.10	4.60	14.26	-	-	-
Severity of bullying
Sometimes	3	0.9	0.83	0.96	0.5	0	0.78
Frequent	3	0.81	0.72	0.92	3.67	45.49	0.16
Criminal behaviour
Pooling all	33	1.04	0.78	1.39	133.36	76.01	< 0.01
Carrying a weapon	8	1.59	1.27	1.98	19.16	63.47	0.01
Violent offense/behaviour	6	1.25	1.01	1.56	2.46	0	0.78
Study type
Retrospective/cross-sectional	9	1.01	0.47	2.14	106.83	92.51	< 0.01
Prospective cohort	24	1.05	0.92	1.19	25.72	10.58	0.31
Sex
Male	11	1.00	0.82	1.22	13.78	27.43	0.18
Female	4	0.70	0.46	1.04	0.38	0	0.94
Severity of bullying
Sometimes	5	0.97	0.75	1.26	7.37	45.74	0.12
Frequent	8	1.22	0.86	1.74	16.33	57.13	0.02
Other outcomes reported
Good quality of later life	6	0.85	0.78	0.93	17.42	71.29	< 0.01
Poor life satisfaction	6	2.26	1.41	3.60	3.79	0	0.58
Problematic internet usage	1	2.36	1.58	3.54	-	-	-
Picked on by siblings	1	1.69	1.38	2.07	-	-	-