Effects of cumulative COVID-19 cases on mental health: Evidence from multi-country survey

Table 5 Ordinary least squares regression of mental health scores on cumulative coronavirus disease 2019 case, lockdown, and individual characteristics (survey round 2)

	PHQ-9		GAD-7		IES-R
	Round 1	Round 2	Round 1	Round 2	Round 1	Round 2
Daily cumulative COVID-19 case/1000000	0.195c	0.433c	0.129c	0.557c	0.454c	1.265c
	[0.18, 0.21]	[0.23, 0.63]	[0.11, 0.15]	[0.38, 0.74]	[0.40, 0.51]	[0.67, 1.86]
Dummy for second lockdown withdraw		-0.507c		-0.343b		-1.077b
		[-0.83, -0.18]		[-0.63, -0.05]		[-2.04, -0.11]
Dummy for second lockdown withdraw1(date-second lockdown withdraw date)		-0.034c		-0.038c		-0.104c
		[-0.06, -0.01]		[-0.06, -0.02]		[-0.18, -0.03]
Date-second lockdown withdraw date		0.013		-0.002		0.034
		[-0.01, 0.03]		[-0.02, 0.02]		[-0.03, 0.10]
Healthcare professional (1 = yes, 0 = no)	-0.693c	-0.747c	-0.540c	-0.587c	-2.325c	-2.551c
	[-0.80, -0.58]	[-0.86, -0.63]	[-0.64, -0.44]	[-0.69, -0.48]	[-2.65, -2.00]	[-2.89, -2.21]
Age (base: Below 25)
25-44	-1.147c	-1.339c	-0.333c	-0.445c	-1.043c	-0.715b
	[-1.34, -0.96]	[-1.55, -1.13]	[-0.50, -0.16]	[-0.63, -0.26]	[-1.60, -0.49]	[-1.33, -0.10]
45-54	-2.059c	-2.245c	-1.310c	-1.421c	-2.263c	-1.750c
	[-2.27, -1.85]	[-2.47, -2.02]	[-1.50, -1.12]	[-1.63, -1.22]	[-2.88, -1.65]	[-2.42, -1.08]
55 and over	-3.455c	-3.639c	-2.424c	-2.521c	-4.792c	-4.223c
	[-3.66, -3.25]	[-3.87, -3.41]	[-2.61, -2.24]	[-2.72, -2.32]	[-5.40, -4.18]	[-4.89, -3.55]
White (1 = yes, 0 = no)	-0.291c	-0.243c	-0.326c	-0.249c	-2.114c	-1.667c
	[-0.42, -0.16]	[-0.38, -0.11]	[-0.44, -0.21]	[-0.37, -0.13]	[-2.49, -1.74]	[-2.07, -1.27]
Christian (1 = yes, 0 = no)	-0.017	0.018	0.174c	0.183c	0.752c	0.795c
	[-0.11, 0.08]	[-0.08, 0.12]	[0.09, 0.26]	[0.10, 0.27]	[0.47, 1.03]	[0.50, 1.09]
Male (1 = yes, 0 = no)	-1.470c	-1.476c	-1.491c	-1.523c	-4.418c	-4.798c
	[-1.57, -1.37]	[-1.58, -1.37]	[-1.58, -1.40]	[-1.62, -1.43]	[-4.72, -4.12]	[-5.12, -4.48]
Attended university (1 = yes, 0 = no)	-0.699c	0.000	-0.543c	0.000	-0.174	0.000
	[-0.96, -0.43]	[0.00, 0.00]	[-0.78, -0.31]	[0.00, 0.00]	[-0.95, 0.60]	[0.00, 0.00]
Own home (1 = yes, 0 = no)	-1.328c	-1.391c	-0.899c	-0.957c	-2.985c	-3.338c
	[-1.44, -1.22]	[-1.51, -1.27]	[-1.00, -0.80]	[-1.06, -0.85]	[-3.32, -2.65]	[-3.69, -2.99]
Vulnerable according to government category and require shielding (1 = yes, 0 = no)	1.355c	1.393c	1.083c	1.124c	3.932c	3.929c
	[1.25, 1.46]	[1.28, 1.51]	[0.99, 1.18]	[1.02, 1.23]	[3.61, 4.26]	[3.59, 4.27]
Experienced coronavirus (1 = yes, 0 = no)	0.747c	0.715c	0.566c	0.535c	2.601c	2.398c
	[0.64, 0.85]	[0.61, 0.82]	[0.47, 0.66]	[0.44, 0.63]	[2.30, 2.91]	[2.08, 2.71]
Pre-existing mental health condition (1 = yes, 0 = no)	2.808c	2.745c	2.278c	2.266c	7.150c	7.160c
	[2.62, 2.99]	[2.55, 2.94]	[2.11, 2.44]	[2.10, 2.44]	[6.60, 7.70]	[6.60, 7.73]
Drinking alcohol (1 = yes, 0 = no)	2.300c	2.506c	1.714c	1.875c	5.976c	6.400c
	[2.17, 2.43]	[2.36, 2.65]	[1.60, 1.83]	[1.75, 2.00]	[5.59, 6.37]	[5.98, 6.82]
Taking drug (1 = yes, 0 = no)	1.232c	1.359c	0.539c	0.562c	3.126c	3.270c
	[1.01, 1.46]	[1.10, 1.62]	[0.34, 0.74]	[0.33, 0.79]	[2.46, 3.79]	[2.51, 4.03]
Ever experienced suicidal thoughts (1 = yes, 0 = no)	4.405c	4.379c	2.749c	2.716c	9.625c	9.747c
	[4.29, 4.52]	[4.26, 4.49]	[2.65, 2.85]	[2.61, 2.82]	[9.30, 9.95]	[9.41, 10.09]
Mental health support from (base: No support)
Health service provider	0.322c	0.342c	-0.024	-0.051	-0.124	-0.288
	[0.10, 0.55]	[0.11, 0.57]	[-0.22, 0.17]	[-0.26, 0.15]	[-0.79, 0.54]	[-0.97, 0.39]
Other	1.041c	1.300c	0.686c	0.854c	2.979c	3.572c
	[0.78, 1.31]	[1.02, 1.58]	[0.45, 0.92]	[0.61, 1.10]	[2.20, 3.76]	[2.75, 4.40]
Constant	8.201c	8.292c	6.023c	5.496c	17.577c	16.168c
	[7.98, 8.42]	[7.84, 8.74]	[5.83, 6.22]	[5.10, 5.90]	[16.94, 18.21]	[14.84, 17.50]
Observations	62938	57985	63545	58547	58966	54202
Adjusted R2	0.315	0.318	0.228	0.230	0.222	0.228

^bP < 0.05.

^cP < 0.01.

¹See Table 3 for dates of first lock down period.

95% confidence intervals are in brackets. PHQ-9: Patient health questionnaire-9; IES-R: Impact of Events Scale-Revised; GAD-7: Generalized anxiety disorder-7; COVID-19: Coronavirus disease 2019.