Effects of cumulative COVID-19 cases on mental health: Evidence from multi-country survey

Table 4 Ordinary least squares regression of mental health scores on cumulative coronavirus disease 2019 case, lockdown, and individual characteristics (survey round 1)

	PHQ-9		GAD-7		IES-R
	Round 1	Round 2	Round 1	Round 2	Round 1	Round 2
Daily cumulative COVID-19 case/1000000	0.075a	2.121c	0.041	1.750c	0.225a	1.543a
	[-0.01, 0.16]	[1.58, 2.66]	[-0.03, 0.11]	[1.28, 2.22]	[-0.02, 0.47]	[-0.05, 3.14]
Dummy for first lockdown withdraw		-0.658c		-0.450c		-1.224b
		[-0.97, -0.34]		[-0.73, -0.17]		[-2.16, -0.29]
Dummy for first lockdown withdraw1(date-first lockdown withdraw date)		-0.018c		-0.014c		-0.043c
		[-0.03, -0.01]		[-0.02, -0.01]		[-0.07, -0.02]
Date-first lockdown withdraw date		0.006b		0.000		0.004
		[0.00, 0.01]		[-0.00, 0.01]		[-0.01, 0.02]
Healthcare professional (1 = yes, 0 = no)	-0.402c	-0.737c	-0.328c	-0.631c	-1.394c	-2.185c
	[-0.54, -0.26]	[-0.89, -0.58]	[-0.45, -0.21]	[-0.77, -0.49]	[-1.81, -0.98]	[-2.65, -1.72]
Age (base: Below 25)	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000
25-44	-1.084c	-1.428c	-0.482c	-0.713c	-2.350c	-2.091c
	[-1.34, -0.83]	[-1.75, -1.11]	[-0.71, -0.26]	[-0.99, -0.43]	[-3.10, -1.60]	[-3.02, -1.16]
45-54	-1.958c	-2.345c	-1.456c	-1.737c	-3.992c	-3.366c
	[-2.24, -1.68]	[-2.69, -1.99]	[-1.70, -1.21]	[-2.05, -1.43]	[-4.83, -3.15]	[-4.39, -2.34]
55 and over	-2.956c	-3.108c	-2.179c	-2.284c	-5.568c	-4.085c
	[-3.24, -2.67]	[-3.47, -2.75]	[-2.43, -1.93]	[-2.60, -1.97]	[-6.42, -4.72]	[-5.15, -3.02]
White (1 = yes, 0 = no)	0.360c	0.482c	0.299c	0.413c	-1.120c	-0.054
	[0.17, 0.55]	[0.23, 0.74]	[0.13, 0.47]	[0.19, 0.64]	[-1.69, -0.55]	[-0.80, 0.69]
Christian (1 = yes, 0 = no)	-0.206c	-0.036	0.018	0.222c	0.522c	0.829c
	[-0.34, -0.07]	[-0.19, 0.12]	[-0.10, 0.13]	[0.08, 0.36]	[0.13, 0.91]	[0.37, 1.29]
Male (1 = yes, 0 = no)	-1.189c	-1.231c	-1.039c	-1.042c	-2.997c	-3.719c
	[-1.34, -1.03]	[-1.43, -1.03]	[-1.18, -0.90]	[-1.22, -0.86]	[-3.46, -2.53]	[-4.31, -3.13]
Attended university (1 = yes, 0 = no)	-1.141c	0.000	-0.545c	0.000	-1.254c	0.000
	[-1.34, -0.94]	[0.00, 0.00]	[-0.72, -0.37]	[0.00, 0.00]	[-1.85, -0.65]	[0.00, 0.00]
Living at own home (1 = yes, 0 = no)	-0.885c	-1.105c	-0.489c	-0.692c	-1.432c	-2.270c
	[-1.04, -0.73]	[-1.30, -0.91]	[-0.63, -0.35]	[-0.86, -0.52]	[-1.89, -0.97]	[-2.83, -1.71]
Vulnerable according to government category (base: Not vulnerable)	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000
Aged 70 or above	-0.898c	-1.105c	-0.764c	-0.985c	-1.954c	-2.909c
	[-1.18, -0.62]	[-1.52, -0.69]	[-1.01, -0.52]	[-1.35, -0.62]	[-2.81, -1.10]	[-4.19, -1.63]
Chronic disease	0.361b	0.345b	0.533c	0.543c	1.245c	1.644c
	[0.08, 0.64]	[0.03, 0.66]	[0.29, 0.78]	[0.26, 0.83]	[0.41, 2.08]	[0.70, 2.59]
Diabetes	0.034	-0.064	0.102	0.139	0.867	1.185
	[-0.43, 0.49]	[-0.63, 0.50]	[-0.30, 0.50]	[-0.36, 0.64]	[-0.50, 2.23]	[-0.49, 2.86]
Other	0.915c	0.846c	0.390c	0.355b	0.811a	1.208b
	[0.62, 1.21]	[0.49, 1.20]	[0.13, 0.65]	[0.04, 0.67]	[-0.07, 1.70]	[0.15, 2.27]
Vulnerable according to government category and require shielding (1 = yes, 0 = no)	1.087c	1.096c	0.909c	0.945c	4.281c	3.513c
	[0.83, 1.34]	[0.76, 1.43]	[0.68, 1.13]	[0.65, 1.24]	[3.51, 5.05]	[2.52, 4.50]
Experienced coronavirus (1 = yes, 0 = no)	0.324c	0.220b	0.237c	0.181b	0.410a	0.547b
	[0.18, 0.47]	[0.05, 0.39]	[0.11, 0.36]	[0.03, 0.33]	[-0.01, 0.83]	[0.05, 1.05]
Pre-existing mental health condition (1 = yes, 0 = no)	3.447c	3.256c	3.158c	3.091c	8.608c	8.227c
	[3.26, 3.63]	[3.04, 3.47]	[3.00, 3.32]	[2.90, 3.28]	[8.06, 9.16]	[7.60, 8.86]
Drinking alcohol (1 = yes, 0 = no)	0.251c	-0.082	0.234c	-0.101	0.410	-0.277
	[0.08, 0.42]	[-0.30, 0.13]	[0.08, 0.38]	[-0.29, 0.09]	[-0.10, 0.92]	[-0.91, 0.36]
Taking drug (1 = yes, 0 = no)	0.794c	1.303c	0.725c	0.729c	2.262c	2.527c
	[0.48, 1.11]	[0.76, 1.84]	[0.45, 1.00]	[0.25, 1.21]	[1.33, 3.19]	[0.95, 4.11]
Ever experienced suicidal thoughts (1 = yes, 0 = no)	3.101c	2.976c	1.623c	1.503c	6.054c	5.812c
	[2.95, 3.25]	[2.80, 3.15]	[1.49, 1.75]	[1.35, 1.66]	[5.61, 6.50]	[5.30, 6.32]
Mental health support from (base: No support)	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000	0.000
Health service provider	0.134	0.245a	-0.052	-0.021	0.008	-0.030
	[-0.11, 0.37]	[-0.03, 0.52]	[-0.26, 0.16]	[-0.26, 0.22]	[-0.71, 0.72]	[-0.85, 0.79]
Other	1.072c	1.269c	0.521c	0.666c	3.042c	3.542c
	[0.77, 1.38]	[0.91, 1.63]	[0.25, 0.79]	[0.35, 0.98]	[2.14, 3.95]	[2.49, 4.59]
Constant	7.050c	7.213c	4.651c	4.590c	16.577c	16.791c
	[6.73, 7.37]	[6.69, 7.73]	[4.37, 4.93]	[4.13, 5.05]	[15.62, 17.54]	[15.26, 18.32]
Observations	28560	21077	28710	21202	26913	19785
Adjusted R2	0.279	0.261	0.214	0.203	0.180	0.172

^aP < 0.10.

^bP < 0.05.

^cP < 0.01.

¹See Table 3 for dates of first lock down period.

95% confidence intervals are in brackets. PHQ-9: Patient health questionnaire-9; IES-R: Impact of Events Scale-Revised; GAD-7: Generalized anxiety disorder-7; COVID-19: Coronavirus disease 2019.