Neurobiological mechanisms underlying delayed expression of posttraumatic stress disorder: A scoping review

Table 3 Overview of Human Studies

Ref.	Population (n)	Trauma/stressor	Assessment times
Admon et al[14], 2013	Soldiers (33)	Treating a fellow soldier with severe combat injury	Pre-deployment and 18 mo later
Alway et al[30],2016	TBI patients (85)	Motor vehicle accidents (76.5%), other accidents, assaults	6 mo, 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-yr post-injury
Bryant et al[29], 2009	Traumatic injury patients with no (708) or mild TBI (459)	Transport accident, assault, fall, work injury, other injury	During hospital admission and at 3 mo post-injury
Bryant et al[28], 2013	Road traffic accident survivors admitted to trauma hospital (1084)	Transport accident, assault, fall, work injury, other injury	During hospital admission and at 3-, 12-, and 24 mos post-injury
Busso et al[21], 2014	Adolescents exposed to bombing (78)	Terrorist attack at the 2013 Boston marathon	1 year prior to trauma (n = 44), 4-6 wk posttrauma (n = 78)
Cacciaglia et al[13], 2017	Healthy rescue ambulance workers (18), non-exposed matched controls (18)	Exposed group: vehicle accident (41%), traumatic loss of a loved one, domestic violence, childhood abuse	Cross-sectional; trauma occurred a mean of 7.41 yr ago
Chase et al[39], 2015	Help-seeking veterans (16) and family members (10)	Exposure to blast during employment to combat-intense settings	Cross-sectional; > 7 yr after exposure
Do Prado et al[31], 2017	Adolescents with childhood trauma (30), controls without history of early life stress (27)	Sexual abuse, physical abuse, emotional abuse, physical neglect, emotional neglect	Cross-sectional; maltreatment ended > 12 mo ago
Gandubert et al[19], 2016	Emergency room patients (123)	Physical assault, sexual assault, serious accident, other	During the first week and at 1-, 4-, and 12 mos post-trauma
Gil et al[35], 2005	Traumatic brain injury patients (120)	Traffic accident	< 1 week, 3 mo, and 6 mo later
Glenn et al[27], 2017	Soldiers deployed to Afghanistan (852)	Combat experience, difficult living and working environment	4 wk before and 22 wk after deployment
Jung et al[47], 2019	Community-dwelling women (nurses) (50020)	Various self-reported on Brief Trauma Questionnaire	Biennial from enrollment
Monfort and Trehel[44], 2017	93-year-old veteran (1)	WW II combat experiences	65 years later
Roy et al[36], 2015	Combat veterans without PTSD, depression, or post-concussive syndrome < 2 mo after return (81)	Deployment to Iraq or Afghanistan > 3 mo	< 2 mo after return, 3, 6, and 12 mo
Smid et al[26], 2015	Deployed soldiers (693)	4 mo deployment to Afghanistan	2 mo prior to deployment and 1-, 6-, 12-, and 24 mo following deployment
Solomon and Mikulincer[42], 2006	Combat veterans with combat stress reaction (CSR) (131) or without (83)	1982 Lebanon War	1, 2, 3, and 20 yr after the war
Solomon et al[41], 2017	Ex-prisoners of war (101), combat controls (15)	1973 Yom Kippur War	18, 30, 35, 42 yr after the war
Stein et al[43], 2013	Community-dwelling (25,018)	Lifetime exposure to 27 traumatic events	Cross-sectional
Uddin et al[32], 2010	PTSD-affected (23) and -unaffected individuals (77) from large sample	Lifetime exposure to 19 traumatic events	Cross-sectional
Vaiva et al[20], 2005	Hospitalized traumatology patients (78)	Road traffic accident	1 and 6 wk, 12 mo
Wang et al[33], 2015	Blunt chest trauma patients (57)	Motor vehicle accidents (61.4%), falls, other accidents	1, 3, 6 mo
Waszczuk et al[46], 2020	First responders (1490)	Working at the World Trade Center site, New York following the 9/11, 2001 terrorist attacks	Mean = 7.75 monitoring visits per 1.49 yr, PTSD diagnosis at 12 yr