5G mobile communication applications for surgery: An overview of the latest literature

Table 1 Comparison between long-term evolution and 5G[40]

Characteristic	4G/LTE	5G
Data rate	0.01-1 Gbit/s	0.1-20 Gbit/s
Latency	10 ms	1 ms
Mobility	~ 360 km/h	~ 500 km/h
Energy efficiency	0.1 mJ per 100 bits	0.1 µJ per 100 bits

LTE: Long-term evolution.

Table 2 Research studies using 5G for surgery

Ref.	Yr	Study type	Robot system	Location - remote distance	Data rate	Latency
Jell et al[37]	2019	(1) Delphi study; and (2) 2 use cases: (a) Track and tracing; and (b) Remote robotic camera control on phantom	SoloAssist (AKTORmed)	Munich (Germany): Not indicated	~ 8 Mbit/s	2-60 ms
Lacy et al[50]	2019	Telementoring with telestration: (1) Laparoscopic ant. high resection; and (2) Laparoscopic ant. low resection	-	(1) Barcelona (Spain): 4 km; and (2) Shanghai (China): 6 km	(1) 95-102 Mbit/s; and (2) 99-106 Mbit/s	(1) 202 ms; and (2) 146 ms
Acemoglu et al[51]	2010	Brief research report: Remote microsurgical cordectomy on a cadaver	Panda robot (Franka Emika); 3D-microscop (Karl Storz)	Milan (Italy): 15 km	-	One-way video latency: 102 ± 2 ms (max. ≤ 140 ms); Round-trip latency: 280 ms
Tian et al[52]	2020	Remote spinal surgery on human (n = 12)	TiRobot system (Tinavi)	Beijing (China): 120 km; 280 km; 750 km; 1200 km; 3000 km	-	28 ms
Zheng et al[53]	2020	Remote laparoscopic surgery on porcine model (n = 4)	MicroHand (WEGO Group)	Quingdolo (China): 3000 km	-	Mean round trip latency: 264 ms (258-278 ms)