Organized physical activity and sedentary behaviors in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder, cerebral palsy, and intellectual disability

Table 1 Basic and demographic data of participants in autism spectrum disorders, intellectual disability, and cerebral palsy groups, n (%)

Variables	ASD	ID	CP	P value
Gender; Female	9 (3.6)	247 (53.0)	160 (52.3)	< 0.001
Age (yr); mean (SD)	11.15 (2.7)	12.69 (3.0)	12.11 (3.2)	< 0.001
Height (cm); mean (SD)	145.51 (16.20)	141.55 (17.30)	137.01 (18.70)	< 0.001
Weight (kg); mean (SD)	44.98 (19.10)	42.70 (18.10)	38.73 (20.70)	< 0.001
WC (cm); mean (SD)	70.90 (13.60)	72.19 (15.10)	66.53 (11.80)	< 0.001
HC (cm); mean (SD)	81.16 (12.60)	82.72 (15.40)	76.23 (12.80)	< 0.001
WHR; mean (SD)	0.86 (0.10)	0.87 (0.20)	0.87 (0.10)	0.691
Musculoskeletal disorder	27 (10.9)	70 (15.0)	78 (25.5)	< 0.001
Household
Owner	131 (55.0)	239 (54.2)	108 (37.9)	< 0.001
Tenant	92 (38.7)	178 (40.4)	141 (49.5)
Other	15 (6.3)	24 (5.4)	36 (12.6)
Childcare
Two parents	201 (91.8)	350 (85.8)	242 (89.3)	0.157
Single parent	17 (7.8)	48 (11.8)	25 (9.2)
Other	1 (0.5)	10 (2.5)	4 (1.5)
Father’s education
Lower than diploma	39 (16.5)	217 (48.5)	122 (43.9)	< 0.001
Diploma (11 yr of education)	70 (29.5)	134 (30.0)	89 (32.0)
Higher than diploma	128 (54.0)	96 (21.5)	67 (24.1)
Mother’s education
Lower than diploma	37 (15.3)	215 (48.4)	105 (36.1)	< 0.001
Diploma (11 yr of education)	85 (35.1)	159 (35.8)	132 (45.4)
Higher than diploma	120 (49.6)	70 (15.8)	54 (18.6)
Father’s age (yr); mean (SD)	43.98 (6.70)	46.2 (7.7)	43.2 (6.9)	< 0.001
Mother’s age (yr); mean (SD)	38.30 (6.50)	41.2 (7.1)	38.1 (6.7)	< 0.001

ASD: Autism spectrum disorders; CP: Cerebral palsy; HC: Hip circumference; ID: Intellectual disability; SD: Standard deviation; WC: Waist circumference; WHR: Waist to hip ratio.

Table 2 The amount of physical activity/organized physical activity (minutes per week) and level of physical activity in autism spectrum disorders in comparison to control intellectual disability, and cerebral palsy groups

Min/week	ASD, mean (SD)	ID, mean (SD)	CP, mean (SD)	P value
OPA
Aerobic exercise	1.0 (8.7)	1.1 (10.2)	0.6 (6.5)	0.938
Dancing	7.3 (30.7)	14.2 (44.6)	6.9 (38.3)	< 0.001
Gymnastic	2.2 (24)	0.6 (8.1)	0.2 (3.1)	0.367
Tennis	0.4 (3.9)	2.0 (16.9)	4.7 (51.5)	0.323
Football	10.5 (59.4)	9.2 (34.4)	3.7 (28.2)	0.003
Volleyball	2.6 (29.2)	1.3 (9.4)	0.4 (4.3)	0.246
Basketball	0.8 (12.1)	2.3 (26.7)	0.3 (4.2)	0.475
Handball	0 (0)	0.1 (2.5)	0.3 (3.3)	0.132
Swimming laps	11.1 (58.2)	2.6 (17.4)	1.2 (10.2)	0.008
Rollerblading	4.2 (24.7)	3.6 (37.7)	0.2 (2.9)	0.017
Skateboarding	0.7 (8.3)	0.9 (15.4)	0.3 (4.2)	0.690
Physical education class	2.3 (14.7)	1.9 (11.5)	1.1 (8.6)	0.567
Sport class at school	16.4 (25.1)	10.5 (24.9)	6.6 (17.1)	< 0.001
Total OPA	59.5 (134.0)	50.4 (101.3)	26.6 (85.1)	< 0.001
Non-OPA (mins/week)
Bicycling	27.4 (95.7)	11.7 (49.8)	9.4 (76.6)	< 0.001
Scooter	6.9 (37)	4.0 (29.3)	0.5 (4.6)	0.008
Skipping rope	1.6 (17.2)	0.8 (5.8)	0.3 (3.6)	0.047
Playing with the ball	0.7 (7.9)	1.7 (29.4)	0.3 (5.1)	0.377
Tag/chasey	2.1 (20.8)	3.8 (20.8)	0.6 (7.3)	< 0.001
Household chores	23.5 (70.7)	26.3 (94.8)	10.6 (53)	< 0.001
Walk for exercise	49.7 (103.5)	23.7 (55.9)	22.7 (135.6)	< 0.001
Play on playground equipment	48.2 (95.7)	22.7 (53.9)	13.6 (43.5)	< 0.001
Jogging or running	17.4 (82.6)	9.2 (35.0)	4.1 (22.1)	< 0.001
Swimming for fun	21.8 (48.6)	6.6 (25.1)	9.8 (34.5)	< 0.001
Bounce on the trampoline	4.9 (30.1)	1.5 (15.3)	0.5 (4.9)	< 0.001
Play with pet	2.3 (18.6)	3.7 (24)	5.5 (41.9)	0.471
Travel to school by walking	4.0 (21.3)	6.1 (31.9)	1.2 (9.8)	< 0.001
Travel to school by bicycling	0.2 (3.8)	0.2 (2.4)	0.1 (2.3)	0.822
Total non-OPA	210.8 (295.3)	122.1 (210.1)	79.4 (207.5)	< 0.001
Level of PA/OPA
Moderate physical activity	198.7 (277.1)	129.4 (206.9)	79.8 (207.2)	< 0.001
Vigorous physical activity	71.5 (159.4)	43.1 (111.9)	26.1 (84.2)	< 0.001
Total physical activity	270.3 (372.9)	172.4 (275.3)	105.9 (241.8)	< 0.001

PA: Physical activity; OPA: Organized physical activity; ASD: Autism spectrum disorders; CP: Cerebral palsy; ID: Intellectual disability; SD: Standard deviation.

Table 3 The amount of sedentary behavior (minutes per week) in autism spectrum disorders in comparison to control intellectual disability, and cerebral palsy groups

Variables (mins/week)	ASD, mean (SD)	ID, mean (SD)	CP, mean (SD)	P value
Watching TV	465.8 (628.1)	709.8 (810.0)	747.3 (788.9)	< 0.001
Play station/computer games	131.7 (306.9)	96.2 (281.8)	103.1 (309.4)	0.061
Computer/internet	74.9 (215.7)	70.5 (229.9)	69.0 (270.1)	0.185
Homework	363.1 (410.6)	415.2 (489.0)	516.6 (717.0)	0.392
Play indoors with toys	136.7 (277.4)	164.1 (315.4)	193.7 (359.0)	0.742
Sitting talking	112.7 (296.5)	170.3 (400.2)	293 (757.4)	0.052
Talk on the phone	16.8 (60.0)	38.2 (175.5)	67.1 (231.9)	0.001
Listen to music	177.4 (402.3)	121.9 (258.1)	118.3 (253.2)	0.118
Playing musical instrument	7.6 (37.4)	5.1 (62.3)	2.9 (27.9)	0.005
Playing board games/cards	15.7 (88.0)	15.9 (75.9)	27.4 (129.3)	0.249
Reading	98.1 (222.4)	146.6 (294.2)	250.2 (420.4)	0.001
Art	40.2 (128.3)	44.7 (169.5)	49.1 (234.6)	0.187
Imaginary play	24.0 (115.5)	72.3 (197.2)	89.1 (279.9)	0.001
Travel by car/bus	154.7 (357.6)	105.7 (296.1)	160.3 (372.4)	0.032
Total sedentary behavior	1819.4 (1680.0)	2176.5 (2168.9)	2687.0 (2673.5)	0.008

ASD: Autism spectrum disorders; CP: Cerebral palsy; ID: Intellectual disability; SD: Standard deviation.

Table 4 Associations between contributing factors, moderate to vigorous physical activities,and sedentary behaviors in autism spectrum disorders group

Domain	Variable		MVPA (mins/week)	P value	OPA (mins/week)	P value	Non-OPA (mins/week)	P value	SB (mins/week)	P value
Individual	Gender	Male (n = 239)	276.7 (377.9)	0.127	61.6 (136.0)	0.045	215.1 (299.3)	0.310	1835.6 (1686.0)	0.418
		Female (n = 9)	100.6 (105.8)		5.6 (11.1)		95.0 (105.2)		1388.7 (1536.3)
	Age	6-11 yr (n = 143)	308.1 (423.1)	0.381	64.3 (148.7)	0.484	243.8 (345.4)	0.313	1897.70 (1738.69)	0.733
		12-14 yr (n = 72)	200.1 (237.5)		48.5 (81.0)		151.5 (193.4)		1728.3 (1538.7)
		15-18 yr (n = 33)	259.7 (319.3)		62.9 (159.4)		196.8 (218.6)		1679.1 (1747.5)
	Musculoske-letal disorder	No (n = 221)	264.4 (380.2)	0.094	57.7 (136.1)	0.054	206.7 (301.6)	0.140	1774.4 (1666.3)	0.242
		Yes (n = 27)	318.9 (307.8)		74.6 (115.9)		244.2 (239.1)		2187.7 (1778.6)
Familial/social	Household	Owner (n = 131)	252.2 (362.2)	0.897	59.1 (142.0)	0.880	193.1 (262.6)	0.985	1803.0 (1625.8)	0.986
		Tenant (n = 92)	288.3 (397.6)		65.7 (137.0)		222.7 (324.9)		1832.8 (1801.9)
		Other (n = 15)	234.4 (223.1)		52.0 (74.8)		182.4 (206.6)		1846.0 (1729.3)
	Child care	Two parents (n = 207)	285.5 (389.1)	0.258	63.8 (144.5)	0.624	221.8 (304.0)	0.325	1906.3 (1698.4)	0.493
		Single parent (n = 17)	202.9 (296.8)		29.4 (35.6)		173.5 (297.9)		1415.0 (1399.3)
		Other (n = 1)	-		-		-		-
	Father’s education	Lower than diploma (n = 39)	309.3 (426.0)	0.335	58.5 (144.6)	0.060	250.8 (367.3)	0.672	1782.3 (1637.1)	0.099
		Diploma (n = 70)	264.2 (439.7)		62.4 (189.2)		201.8 (295.2)		1526.7 (1584.9)
		Higher than diploma (n = 128)	269.0 (324.6)		60.7 (93.9)		208.3 (277.0)		2012.8 (1637.1)
	Mother’s education	Lower than diploma (n = 37)	229.9 (352.3)	0.076	37.8 (75.8)	0.443	192.0 (342.8)	0.032	1218.8 (1694.3)	0.020
		Diploma (n = 85)	323.1 (433.6)		70.0 (177.3)		253.1 (306.6)		1696.5 (1708.2)
		Higher than diploma (n = 120)	251.5 (337.2)		59.9 (113.4)		191.6 (275.1)		1898.4 (1607.9)
	Father’s age	< 35 yr (n = 13)	204.2 (222.6)	0.484	36.9 (46.1)	0.496	167.3 (217.1)	0.538	1656.0 (2499.9)	0.223
		35-49 yr (n = 182)	297.0 (403.1)		64.7 (144.8)		232.3 (320.8)		1912.5 (1690.2)
		≥ 50 yr (n = 40)	202.6 (244.1)		44.5 (93.9)		158.1 (190.8)		1472.0 (1329.6)
	Mother’s age	< 35 yr (n = 81)	327 (456.6)	0.168	71.7 (181.7)	0.544	255.4 (334.3)	0.228	1822.7 (1935.8)	0.218
		35-49 yr (n = 149)	258.2 (334.1)		56.3 (107.4)		202.0 (283.3)		1866.2 (1545.9)
		≥ 50 yr (n = 13)	132.7 (177.1)		27.3 (53.4)		105.4 (132.2)		1123.5 (1129.0)

OPA: Organized physical activity; SB: Sedentary behaviors MVPA: Moderate to vigorous physical activities

Table 5 Associations between contributing factors, moderate to vigorous physical activities,and sedentary behaviors in intellectual disability group

Domain	Variable		MVPA (mins/week)	P value	OPA (mins/week)	P value	Non-OPA (mins/week)	P value	SB (mins/week)	P value
Individual	Gender	Male (n = 219)	208.2 (295.8)	< 0.001	63.7 (114.2)	< 0.001	144.5 (224)	0.001	2183 (1916.7)	0.248
		Female (n = 247)	140.7 (252.1)		38.5 (86.9)		102.2 (195.2)		2170.7 (2374.1)
	Age	6-11 yr (n = 176)	179.1 (276.2)	0.355	43.6 (104)	0.004	135.5 (212.8)	0.248	2200.6 (2193.2)	0.831
		12-14 yr (n = 147)	164.0 (299.1)		47.0 (101.6)		117.0 (237.6)		2090.5 (2149.9)
		15-18 yr (n = 143)	172.9 (249.1)		62.2 (97.2)		110.7 (174.0)		2235.0 (2170.9)
	Musculoske-letal disorder	No (n = 396)	171.2 (263.1)	0.676	49.4 (101.4)	0.775	121.8 (200.8)	0.421	2249.2 (2170.2)	0.041
		Yes (n = 70)	179.6 (338.2)		56.0 (101.2)		123.6 (258.1)		1764.9 (2130.5)
Familial/social	Household	Owner (n = 239)	179.7 (250.7)	0.054	57.4 (106.3)	0.018	122.2 (185.4)	0.075	2413.6 (1994.4)	0.008
		Tenant (n = 178)	161.5 (295.1)		42.0 (96.9)		119.5 (225.7)		1994.7 (2415.6)
		Other (n = 24)	138.6 (170.1)		39.2 (59.5)		99.4 (159.7)		2346.2 (2007.6)
	Child care	Two parents (n = 350)	183.7 (286.0)	0.021	52.9 (108.3)	0.282	130.8 (216.6)	0.023	2205.3 (2121.6)	0.144
		Single parent (n = 48)	130.2 (216.1)		41.8 (74.0)		88.4 (172.9)		2093.1 (2189.2)
		Other (n = 10)	53.6 (125.9)		20.0 (43.2)		33.6 (96.2)		1282.0 (2451.6)
	Father’s education	Lower than diploma (n = 217)	177.7 (298.1)	0.446	51.5 (104.6)	0.633	126.2 (231.8)	0.233	2098.5 (2151.7)	0.421
		Diploma (n = 134)	171.4 (237.4)		39.2 (64.7)		132.23 (194.40)		2442.4 (2266.8)
		Higher than diploma (n = 96)	175.9 (286.8)		68.0 (136.5)		107.9 (185.7)		2215.7 (2104.4)
	Mother’s education	Lower than diploma (n = 215)	185.7 (307.1)	0.575	52.9 (112.4)	0.575	132.8 (235.9)	0.552	2175.8 (2399.6)	0.6
		Diploma (n = 159)	157.0 (215.0)		41.4 (74.7)		115.6 (173.2)		2215.3 (1901.2)
		Higher than diploma (n = 70)	178.9 (315.7)		64.0 (124.5)		114.8 (217.4)		2256.5 (2108.8)
	Father’s age	< 35 yr (n = 22)	140.2 (173.3)	0.367	36.0 (53.8)	0.927	104.1 (151.5)	0.059	1894.1 (1841.9)	0.756
		35-49 yr (n = 289)	176.2 (256.7)		49.5 (100.2)		126.7 (198.5)		2239.32 (2106.00)
		≥ 50 yr (n = 135)	179.1 (333.0)		57.1 (115.1)		122.0 (245.7)		2237.8 (2381.8)
	Mother’s age	< 35 yr (n = 90)	169.5 (248.4)	0.953	42.0 (80.7)	0.542	127.5 (202.5)	0.759	1863.4 (1888.8)	0.326
		35-49 yr (n = 297)	165.6 (252.1)		49.5 (100.0)		116.1 (191.6)		2272.5 (2211.1)
		≥ 50 yr (n = 62)	218.9 (406.3)		69.4 (139.0)		149.5 (297.4)		2278.8 (2403)

OPA: Organized physical activity; SB: Sedentary behaviors MVPA: Moderate to vigorous physical activities

Table 6 Associations between contributing factors, moderate to vigorous physical activities,and sedentary behaviors in cerebral palsy group

Domain	Variable		MVPA (mins/week)	P value	OPA (mins/week)	P value	Non-OPA (mins/week)	P value	SB (mins/week)	P value
Individual	Gender	Male (n = 146)	80.9 (163.5)	0.019	19.1 (53.5)	0.045	61.9 (125.1)	0.107	2236.2 (2531.7)	0.002
		Female (n = 160)	128.7 (294.4)		33.4 (105.7)		95.3 (260.3)		3098.2 (2740.2)
	Age	6-11 yr (n = 143)	126.4 (288.0)	0.665	23.9 (70.6)	0.681	102.6 (267.5)	0.471	2250.8 (2326.4)	0.076
		12-14 yr (n = 82)	98.8 (229.7)		40.5 (130.7)		58.3 (137.6)		3061.3 (2850.2)
		15-18 yr (n = 81)	76.9 (143.5)		17.2 (33.9)		59.7 (127.1)		3078.0 (2963.1)
	Musculoske-letal disorder	No (n = 228)	113.9 (269.2)	0.907	26.8 (83.9)	0.633	87.0 (233.1)	0.976	1771.6 (2807.1)	0.623
		Yes (n = 78)	82.7 (131.1)		25.8 (89.1)		56.9 (98.4)		2439.5 (2235.6)
Familial/social	Household	Owner (n = 108)	98.5 (203.5)	0.586	28.0 (85.8)	0.543	70.5 (173.3)	0.418	2411.4 (2769.4)	0.018
		Tenant (n = 141)	106.8 (248.9)		18.4 (53.4)		88.4 (241.6)		3060.0 (2509.6)
		Other (n = 36)	108.1 (308)		47.1 (150.1)		61.1 (179.3)		221.3 (2841.7)
	Child care	Two parents (n = 242)	115.3 (260.2)	0.828	28.7 (91.0)	0.901	88.6 (227.2)	0.972	2686.2 (2707.5)	0.429
		Single parent (n = 25)	60.0 (85.1)		11.6 (21.0)		48.4 (72.0)		3329.4 (2927.9)
		Other (n = 4)	36.3 (66.0)		11.3 (22.5)		25.0 (43.6)		3147.5 (2116.5)
	Father’s education	Lower than diploma (n = 122)	114.3 (231.1)	0.182	36.5 (110.3)	0.029	77.8 (168.6)	0.257	2879.7 (2684.7)	0.261
		Diploma (n = 89)	127.0 (324.4)		21.1 (68.0)		105.9 (311.7)		2847.8 (3060.3)
		Higher than diploma (n = 67)	60.6 (108.2)		14.8 (41.7)		45.8 (89.6)		2199.7 (2229.7)
	Mother’s education	Lower than diploma (n = 105)	103.0 (183.5)	0.604	34.7 (99.0)	0.059	68.2 (137.7)	0.908	2514.6 (2757.7)	0.423
		Diploma (n = 132)	116.2 (309.6)		22.0 (82.3)		94.2 (279.2)		2967.4 (2822.2)
		Higher than diploma (n = 54)	65.5 (104.8)		17.0 (44.8)		48.5 (86.8)		2642.4 (2291.8)
	Father’s age	< 35 yr (n = 24)	99.8 (133.8)	0.117	45.0 (114.2)	0.33	54.8 (73.4)	0.245	2598.5 (2184.7)	0.966
		35-49 yr (n = 206)	106.7 (271.1)		22.7 (73.8)		84.0 (240.2)		2711.8 (2839.5)
		≥ 50 yr (n = 51)	103.4 (150.2)		30.7 (108.7)		72.7 (110.4)		2593.2 (2488.7)
	Mother’s age	< 35 yr (n = 99)	102.8 (205.7)	0.740	27.4 (84.1)	0.978	75.3 (188.3)	0.802	2829.4 (2773.4)	0.595
		35-49 yr (n = 179)	108.2 (264.9)		25 (85.9)		83.1 (226.5)		2639.1 (2696.7)
		≥ 50 yr (n = 16)	40.9 (56.1)		18.4 (35.3)		22.5 (32.0)		3098.4 (2400.9)

OPA: Organized physical activity; SB: Sedentary behaviors MVPA: Moderate to vigorous physical activities