Diagnosis and treatment of acute pulmonary inflammation in critically ill patients: The role of inflammatory biomarkers

Table 1 Summary of current evidence on biomarkers and their role in the evaluation and management of community acquired pneumonia[22]

Role	Biomarker
Diagnosis	CRP, PCT, Ang 1, Ang 2
Severity of illness	CRP, PCT, Ang 1, Ang 2, Pro-ADM, Pro-ANP, Pro-VNP, SP-D, YKL-40, CCL 18, Endocan, NETs, FGF21,
Clinical instability	CRP, PCT, NETs, FGF21
De-escalation antibiotic	PCT
Prognostication	CRP, PCT, Ang 1, Ang 2, Pro-ADM, Pro-ANP, Pro-VNP, SP-D, YKL-40, CCL 18, NETs, FGF21

CRP: C-reactive protein; PCT: Procalcitonin; Ang 1: Barrier stabilizing angiopoietin 1; Ang 2: Barrier stabilizing angiopoietin 2; pro-ADM: Pro-adrenomedullin; pro-ANP: Pro-atrial natriuretic peptide; pro-VNP: pro-vasopressin; SP-D: Surfactant protein-D; YKL-40: Human cartilage glycoprotein YKL-40; CCL18: Chemokine ligand 18; NET: Neutrophil extracellular trap; FGF21: Fibroblast growth factor 21.

Table 2 Biomarkers in acute respiratory distress syndrome[44]

Pathways	Biomarkers
Epithelial	RAGE
	SP-D
	KL-6
	CC16
	KGF
Endothelial	Ang-1/2
	vWF
	VEGF
Inflammatory	Pro-inflammatory	IL-1β
		IL-6
		TNFα
		IL-8
		IL-18
	Anti-Inflammatory	ILRA
		sTNF-RI/II
		IL-10
Coagulation and Fibrinolysis	PAI-1

RAGE: Receptor for advanced glycation end-product; SP-D: Serum surfactant protein D; KL-6: Kreb von den Lungen-6; CC16: Clara cell secretory protein; KGF: Keratinocyte growth factor; Ang 1/2: Barrier stabilizing angiopoietin 1/2; vWF: Von willebrand factor; VEGF: Vascular endothelial growth factor; IL: Interleukin; sTNF-RI/II: Soluble tissue necrosis factor receptor I/II; PAI-1: Plasminogen activator inhibitor-a.