Pulmonary vein stenosis: Etiology, diagnosis and management

Table 1 Causes of pulmonary vein stenosis

Congenital

Cardiac defects associated:

Total anomalous pulmonary venous return

Septal defects

Transposition of the great vessels

Acquired

Pulmonary vein ablation

Sarcoidosis

Neoplasm

Fibrosing mediastinitis

Post cardiovascular surgery

Table 2 Advantages of imaging modalities used for pulmonary vein stenosis evaluation

	TEE	CT	MRI	VQ
Availability	Yes	Yes	No	No
Non-invasive	No1	Yes	Yes	Yes
Caliber assessment	No	Yes	Yes	No
Functional assessment	Yes	No	Yes	Yes
Evaluation of surrounding tissues	No	Yes	Yes	No
Radiation avoidance	Yes	No	Yes	No

¹TEE is generally considered a semi-invasive technique. TEE: Transesophagueal echocardiography; CT: Computed tomography; MRI: Magnetic resonance imaging; VQ: Ventilation perfusion scan.