Relationship between vitamin D deficiency and cardiovascular disease

Table 1 Double-blind, placebo- and randomized-controlled trials that favor supplement with vitamin D may have a beneficial cardiovascular effects

Ref.	Country	Participants	Intervention	Duration of follow-up	Results
Forman et al[43]	United States	283 African-American	Oral vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol, 1000, 2000, or 4000 IU), or placebo per day for 3 mo	6 mo	Reduction in systolic pressure.
		subjects
Harris et al[44]	United States	45 African-American adults	60000 IU monthly oral vitamin D(3) or placebo for 16 wk	16 wk	Effective at improving vascular endothelial function
Larsen et al[45]	Denmark	112 Hypertensive patients	75 µg (3000 IU) cholecalciferol per day or placebo for 20 wk	20 wk	Significant decreases in systolic blood pressure
Lind et al[46]	Sweden	65 subjects with impaired glucose tolerance	Alphacalcidol (0.75 microgram daily) or placebo over 12 wk	12 wk	Significant reduction of blood pressure
Lind et al[47]	Sweden	65 Hypertensive patients with primary hyperparathyroidism	Alphacalcidol, (1 microgram daily) or placebo over 6 mo	6 mo	Significant reduction of blood pressure
Longenecker et al[48]	United States	45 HIV-infected individuals with vitamin D deficiency	Vitamin D3 4000 IU daily or placebo for 12 wk	12 wk	Modestly improved cholesterol
Salehpour et al[49]	Iran.	77 healthy premenopausal overweight and obese women	Vitamin D (25 μg/d as cholecalciferol) or the placebo group for 12 wk	12 wk.	Significantly improvement of HDL-cholesterol, apoA-I
					concentrations and LDL-cholesterol:apoB-100 ratio.
Shedeed[50]	Egypt	80 infants with CHF	Vitamin D(3) oral drops or placebo oral drops for 12 wk	12 wk	Significant improvement of HF score, LV end-diastolic diameter, LV end-systolic diameter, LV ejection fraction%, and myocardial performance index.
Witham et al[51]	United Kingdom	58 stroke patients	100000 units of a single oral dose of vitamin D2 or placebo	16 wk	Short-term improvement in endothelial function (Flow mediated dilatation was significantly higher in the intervention group at 8 wk)
Zittermann et al[52]	Germany	200 healthy overweight subjects in a weight-reduction program	Vitamin D (83 microg/d) or placebo for 12 mo	12 mo	Significant improvement of cardiovascular disease risk markers

LV: Left-ventricular; CHF: Congestive heart failure; HDL: High-density lipoprotein; LDL: Low-density lipoprotein; IU: International units.

Table 2 Double-blind, placebo- and randomized-controlled trials that do not favor supplementation with vitamin D

Ref.	Country	Participants	Intervention	Duration of follow-up	Results
Gepner et al[53]	United States	114 post-menopausal women	Vitamin D3 2500 IU or placebo, daily for 4 mo	4 mo	No significant effects of vitamin D supplementation to reduce cardiovascular disease risk
Jorde et al[54]	Norway	330 overweight or obese subjects	Vitamin D [cholecalciferol, vitamin D(3)] 40000 IU, vitamin D 20000 IU, or placebo per week for 1 yr	1 yr	No significant effect of vitamin D on glucose tolerance, blood pressure or serum lipids
Marckmann et al[55]	Denmark	52 chronic kidney disease patients with vitamin D deficiency	40000 IU of cholecalciferol orally per week for 8-wk	8 wk	No significant impact on functional markers and plasma concentrations of biomarkers related to cardiovascular disease
Muldowney et al[56]	Ireland	394 healthy participants	Cholecalciferol at doses of 0, 5, 10 , or 15 μg/d (0-600 IU) for 22 wk	22 wk	No significant effects of supplementation on CVD risk biomarkers
Scragg et al[57]	United Kingdom	95 elderly adults	A single oral dose of 2.5 mg cholecalciferol or placebo	5 wk	No significant effect of vitamin D supplementation to change blood pressure or serum cholesterol
Stricker et al[58]	Switzerland	62 peripheral arterial disease patients with vitamin D deficiency	A single, oral supplementation of 100000 IU vitamin D3 or placebo	1 mo	Unlikely to influence endothelial function, arterial stiffness, coagulation and inflammation
Thadhani et al[59]	United States	227 patients with chronic kidney disease	Paricalcitol or placebo over 48 wk	48 wk	Unlikely to alter left ventricular mass index or improve certain measures of diastolic dysfunction
Wood et al[60]	United Kingdom	305 healthy postmenopausal women	A daily capsule of 400 or 1000 IU vitamin D(3) or placebo for 12 mo	12 mo	Unlikely to reduce CVD risk factors
Yiu et al[61]	Hong Kong	100 patients with type 2 DM	Oral vitamin D (5000 IU/d) or placebo per day for 12 wk	12 wk	No significant effect on vascular function or serum biomarkers of inflammation and oxidative stress

CVD: Cardiovascular disease; IU: International units; DM: Diabetes mellitus.