Inflammation and cancer

Table 1 Overexpression of inflammatory factors in gastrointestinal carcinogenesis

Factors	Gastrointestinal cancers
NF-κB	Differential expression and constitutive activation was correlated with severity of oral lesions in the course of oral cancer development[112]
	Elevated activated nuclear factor-κB-regulated cytokines were found in oral lichen planus patients and in the saliva of patients with oral squamous cell carcinoma[113,114]
	Associated with hepatocarcinogenesis induced by viral hepatitis B or viral hepatitis C infection[115,116]
COX-2	Associated with pathogenesis in mucositis[117]
	Associated in Barrett's metaplasia with a change in the local inflammatory reaction[118]
	Important overexpression in the pathogenesis of cholangiocarcinomas[119]
	Contribute to suppression of local immune responses and enhancement of metastatic potential in human hepatocellular carcinoma[120]
	Predictive marker in the early stages of hepatocarcinogenesis[121]
	Related to the histological grade of intraductal papillary-mucinous tumor of the pancreas[122]
	Gene expression was elevated in human colorectal cancer compared to normal mucosa[123]
	Associated with prognosis and intestinal pathways in gastric carcinogenesis[124,125]
STAT-3	Associated with the tumorigenesis of colorectal carcinoma[126]
	Associated with cell survival in gastric cancer[127]
	Associated with the development and proliferation of colorectal cancer[128]
IL-6	Associated with the development of apoptosis resistance Barrett's esophagus[129]
	Associated with the growth and proliferation in human colorectal cancer[130,131]
NOS	Correlated with Barrett's-associated neoplastic progression[132]
5-LOX	Associated with the development of pancreatic cancer[133]

NF-κB: Nuclear factor-κB; COX-2: Cyclooxygenase-2; STAT-3: Signal transducer and activator transcription 3; IL-6: Interleukin-6; NOS: Nitric oxide lipoxygenase; 5-LOX: 5-lipoxygenase.

Table 2 Different factors associated with poor prognosis in gastrointestinal tumors

Factors	Gastrointestinal cancers
NF-κB	An independent prognostic indicator of poor outcome in patients with esophageal adenocarcinoma[134]
	High expression of activated nuclear factor-κB indicates poor patient survival in pancreatic cancer[135]
	Activation in hepatocellular carcinoma was implicated in a poor patient outcome[136]
	Associated with a shorter overall survival rate and prognosis biomarker in gastric cancer[137-139]
	Nuclear factor-κB positivity after radiotherapy was linked with worse clinical outcome in rectal cancer[140]
COX-2	The most important predictor of poor survival in oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma[141]
	Correlated with tumor progression and an unfavorable prognostic factor in esophageal carcinomas [142-146]
	Prognostic factor after surgical resection in patients affected by cancer of ampulla of vater[147]
	Associated with liver metastasis and poor survival in primary colorectal cancer[148-152]
	Associated with invasion, metastasis and implicated a poor prognosis in gastric carcinoma[153]
	Linked to an increased risk of hematogenous metastatic spread in rectal carcinoma[154]
CXCR-4	Associated with poor clinical outcome in esophageal cancer patients[155]
	Associated with lymph node metastasis and early distant relapse in colorectal cancer[156,157]
VEGF	An independent prognostic factor for patients with nasopharyngeal carcinoma[158]
	Associated with prognosis in squamous cell carcinoma of the esophagus[159]
	VEGF-C and VEGF-D expression was associated with lymphatic metastasis and prognosis in patients with pancreatic adenocarcinoma and induced lymphangiogenesis[160]
	Associated with prognosis in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma[161]
	Associated with prognosis in colorectal cancer patients[162,163]
	Associated with angiogenesis and metastasis in gastric cancer[164]
	Associated with lymph node metastasis and progression of ampullary carcinoma[165]
IL-6	Interleukin-1β and Interleukin-6 expression was associated with the growth and progression of human gastric carcinoma[166]
	Associated with progression and poor prognosis of colorectal carcinoma[167,168]
IL-8	Associated with the tumor progression and hepatic metastasis in patients with colorectal cancer[169-171]
	Associated with metastatic potential, angiogenesis and cell proliferation in human hepatocellular carcinoma[172]
	Associated with prognosis in human gastric carcinoma[173]
MMP-9	Correlated with the metastasis of lymph node in gastric cancer[174]
	Associated with tumor cell differentiation, vessel permeation, lymph node metastasis in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma[175]
NOS	Associated with angiogenesis of hepatocellular carcinoma[176]
	Correlated with the progression in gastric cancer patients[177]

NF-κB: Nuclear factor-κB; COX-2: Cyclooxygenase-2; CXCR: Chemokine receptor type 4; VEGF: Vascular endothelial growth factor; IL: Interleukin; MMP: Metalloproteases; NOS: Nitric oxide lipoxygenase.