Prebiotic, probiotic, and postbiotic properties of fermented corn starch and their application in type 2 diabetes management

Table 1 Prebiotic potentials of fermented corn starch in the management of type 2 diabetes

Prebiotic	Study model	Treatment	Antidiabetic mechanism	Ref.
Resistant starch	Human clinical trial	Daily supplementation with 10 g of resistant starch type 2 for 8 weeks	Improved glycemic control (reduced fasting blood glucose and HbA1c), decreased insulin resistance (lower HOMA-IR), reduced inflammatory markers (hs-CRP, TNF-α), and enhanced antioxidant status (increased TAC and antioxidant enzymes, decreased MDA), indicating improved insulin sensitivity and reduced oxidative stress	[50]
Resistant dextrin	Human clinical trial	Daily supplementation with 45 g of milk powder co-supplemented with inulin and resistant dextrin for 12 weeks	Significant reductions in fasting plasma glucose (0.96 mmol/L), 2-hour postprandial glucose (1.47 mmol/L), glycosylated serum protein (16.33 μmol/L), and insulin resistance index (0.65); increases in 2-hour postprandial insulin (7.09 μIU/mL) and β-cell function index (20.43), indicating improved glycemic control and insulin sensitivity	[51]
IMO	Human clinical trial	Single ingestion of 20 g IMO; responses compared to dextrose and other carbohydrates	Stimulated insulin and incretin hormone (GLP-1 and GIP) secretion, suggesting potential benefits for glycemic control and insulin sensitivity	[52]
Maltodextrins	In vivo	Dietary substitution with maltodextrins as the primary carbohydrate source	Maltodextrins slowly release glucose until the distal ileum, activating ileal glucose-sensing and inducing GLP-1 secretion. This enhances insulin secretion and improves glucose homeostasis; the beneficial effects are mediated through GLP-1 receptor signaling	[53]
GOS	In vitro	Optimized GOS production tested on beneficial bacteria (Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus) and for anti-inflammatory effects in TNF-α-stimulated HT-29 cells	Promoted beneficial gut microbiota growth, reduced IL-8 levels in inflamed cells, suggesting potential for improving insulin sensitivity and reducing metabolic inflammation	[52]

HbA1c: Glycated hemoglobin A1c; HOMA-IR: Homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance; hs-CRP: High-sensitivity C-reactive protein; TNF-α: Tumor necrosis factor-α; TAC: Total antioxidant capacity; MDA: Malondialdehyde; IMO: Isomalto-oligosaccharides; GLP-1: Glucagon-like peptide-1; GIP: Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide; GOS: Gluco-oligosaccharides; HT-29 cells: Human colorectal adenocarcinoma cell; IL-8: Interleukin-8.

Table 2 Probiotic potentials of isolated microorganisms from fermented corn starch in the management of type 2 diabetes

Microorganism	Strain	Study model	Treatment	Antidiabetic mechanism	Ref.
Lactiplantibacillus	Lactiplantibacillus brevis	In vitro	Cell-free culture supernatant and whole-cell assay	Produced bacteriocin-like substances that suppress pathogens, tolerated acidic, and bile conditions, supported gut microbial diversity, linked to improved insulin sensitivity	[57]
	Lactiplantibacillus fermentum (MCC2759)	In vivo	Oral administration of 109 CFU/mL daily for 4-8 weeks	Improved glucose tolerance, increased plasma insulin levels, reduced inflammation, enhanced intestinal barrier integrity (ZO-1), upregulated anti-inflammatory IL-10, and improved insulin sensitivity markers (GLUT-4, GLP-1, adiponectin)	[58]
	Lactiplantibacillus plantarum	In vitro	Application of live bacterial cells to epithelial cells	Enhanced intestinal barrier by upregulating tight junction proteins (occludin, claudin-1, ZO-1), improving TEER and reducing permeability	[59]
Leuconostoc	Leuconostoc mesenteroides EH-1	In vivo	Oral administration of Leuconostoc mesenteroides EH-1 fermented product rich in butyric acid	Increased butyric acid production activated Ffar2, leading to improved insulin secretion and lower blood glucose levels	[60]
Bifidobacterium	Bifidobacterium longum WHH2270	In vivo	Oral administration of Bifidobacterium longum WHH2270	Modulated gut microbiota composition, enhanced insulin sensitivity, reduced blood glucose levels, and decreased inflammation	[61]
	Bifidobacterium bifidum	In vivo	Oral administration of a probiotic mixture containing Bifidobacterium bifidum, Bifidobacterium longum, Bifidobacterium infantis, and Bifidobacterium animalis for 5 weeks	Improved insulin resistance and glucose tolerance; increased adiponectin mRNA expression; decreased IL-6 and MCP-1 mRNA expression, indicating reduced inflammation and enhanced insulin sensitivity	[62]
	Bifidobacterium breve	In vivo	Oral administration of Bifidobacterium breve (50 × 109 CFU/day) for 12 weeks	Improved glycemic control (reduced HbA1c and fasting blood sugar), improved lipid profile (reduced LDL-C and triglycerides), and modulation of gut microbiota composition	[62]
Saccharomyces	Saccharomyces cerevisiae	In vitro	Chromosomal integration and expression of exendin-4 peptide	Exendin-4 acted as a GLP-1 receptor agonist, enhancing insulin secretion and improving glycemic control	[63]

ZO-1: Zonula occludens-1; IL-10: Interleukin-10; GLUT-4: Glucose transporter type 4; GLP-1: Glucagon-like peptide-1; TEER: Trans-epithelial electrical resistance; Ffar2: Free fatty acid receptor 2; IL-6: Interleukin-6; MCP-1: Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1; HbA1c: Glycated hemoglobin A1c; LDL-C: Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol.

Table 3 Postbiotic potentials of fermented corn starch in the management of type 2 diabetes

Postbiotic	Study model	Treatment	Antidiabetic mechanism	Ref.
SCFAs	Human clinical trial	High-fiber diet promoting SCFA-producing gut bacteria	SCFAs (acetate, propionate, and butyrate) improved glucose homeostasis by enhancing insulin sensitivity, stimulating the secretion of incretin hormones (GLP-1 and PYY), reducing inflammation, and modulating energy metabolism via the gut-brain axis	[68]
Lactic acid	In vivo	Steamed multigrain bread prepared from dough fermented with lactic acid bacteria	Improved oral glucose tolerance, increased liver glycogen, reduced triglyceride and insulin levels, and enhanced blood lipid profiles; the fermentation process enhanced the bread’s nutritional value and lowered its glycemic index, contributing to better glycemic control	[69]
EPS	In vivo	Administration of EPS isolated from Lactiplantibacillus plantarum JY039, either alone or combined with Lactiplantibacillus paracasei JY062	EPS enhanced the adhesion and proliferation of Lactiplantibacillus paracasei JY062, modulated gut microbiota composition by increasing beneficial bacteria (e.g., Bifidobacterium, Faecalibaculum), improved intestinal barrier function, promoted secretion of gut hormones (GLP-1 and PYY), and reduced inflammation by balancing pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines	[70]
Brevicin 174A	In vitro	Bacterial cultures; isolation from citrus iyo fruit-production and characterization of a two-polypeptide bacteriocin (brevicin 174A-β and 174A-γ)	Exhibited broad-spectrum antibacterial activity, including against pathogens like Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus; such activity contributed to gut microbiota modulation, which is associated with metabolic health benefits	[71]

SCFAs: Short-chain fatty acids; GLP-1: Glucagon-like peptide-1; PYY: Peptide YY; EPS: Exopolysaccharides.