Everything real about unreal artificial intelligence in diabetic retinopathy and in ocular pathologies

Table 1 Comparative analysis of various studies done on artificial intelligence in diabetic retinopathy[19]

Ref.	Sensitivity, specificity or accuracy of the study	Total fundus images examined	Types of AI used	Main objective
Wong et al[20]	Area under the curve were 0.97 and 0.92 for microaneurysm and hemorrhages respectively	143 images	A three-layer feed forward neural network	Deals with detecting the microaneurysm and hemorrhages. Frangi filter used
Imani et al[57]	Sensitivity of 75.02%-75.24%; Specificity of 97.45%-97.53%	60 images	MCA	Detected the exudation and blood vessel
Yazid et al[58]	97.8% in sensitivity, 99% in specificity and 83.3% in predictivity for STARE database. 90.7% in sensitivity, 99.4% in specificity and 74% in predictivity for the custom database	30 images	Inverse surface thresholding	Detected both hard and soft exudates
Akyol et al[59]	Percentage accuracy of disc detection ranged from 90%-94.38% using different data set	239 images	Key point detection, texture analysis, and visual dictionary techniques	Detected the optic disc of fundus images
Niemeijer et al[13]	Accuracy in 99.9% cases in finding the disc	1000 images	Combined k-nearest neighbor and cues	Fast detection of the optic disc
Rajalakshmi et al[60], Smart phone based study	95.8% sensitivity and 80.2% specificity for detecting any DR. 99.1% sensitivity and 80.4% specificity in detecting STDR	Retinal images of 296 patients	Eye Art AI Dr screening software used	Retinal photography with Remidio ‘Fundus on Phone’
Eye Nuk study	Sensitivity was 91.7%; Specificity was 91.5%	40542 images	Eye PAC Stelescreening system	Retinal images taken with traditional desktop fundus cameras
Ting et al[61]	Sensitivity and specificity for RDR was 90.5% and 91.6%; For STDR the sensitivity was 100% and the specificity was 91.1%	494661 retinal images	Deep learning system	Multiple Retinal images taken with conventional fundus cameras
IRIS	Sensitivity of the IRIS algorithm in detecting STDR was 66.4% with false-negative rate of 2% and the specificity was 72.8%. Positive Predictive value of 10.8% and negative predictive value 97.8%	15015 patients	Intelligent Retinal Imaging System (IRIS)	Retinal screening examination and nonmydriatic fundus photography

This table has been reproduced from the article by Padhy et al[19]. Citation: Padhy SK, Takkar B, Chawla R, Kumar A. Artificial intelligence in diabetic retinopathy: A natural step to the future. Indian J Ophthalmol 2019; 67: 1004-1009. Copyright© The Authors 2019. Published by Indian Journal of Ophthalmology. The authors have obtained the permission for table using from the Indian Journal of Ophthalmology Publishing Group (Supplementary material). AI: Artificial intelligence; MCA: Morphological component analysis.

Table 2 Summary of artificial intelligence algorithm used in age-related macular degeneration

Ref.	Sensitivity	Specificity	Diagnostic accuracy	Output
Grassman et al[62]	84.20	94.30	63.3, Kappa of 92%	Final probability value for referable vs not referable
Ting et al[61]	93.20	88.70	Area under curve-0.932	Identifying referable AMD and advanced AMD
Lee et al[26]	84.60	91.50	87.60	Prediction of binary segmentation map
Treder et al[27]	100	92	96	AMD testing score-score of 0.98 or greater adequate for diagnosis of AMD

AMD: Age-related macular degeneration.

Table 3 Summary of studies using artificial intelligence to detect progression in Glaucomatous eyes

Ref.	No. of eyes	Instrument	Approach	Comments
Lin et al[63]	80	SAP	Supervised ML	Sensitivity-86%; Specificity-88%
Goldbaum et al[64]	478 suspects; 150 glaucoma; 55 stable glaucoma	SAP	Unsupervised ML	Specificity-98.4%, AROC not available; Use of variational Byesian. Independent component analysis mixture model in indentifying patterns of glaucomatous visual field defects and its validation
Wang et al[65]	11817 (method developing cohort) and 397 (clinical evaluation cohort)	SAP	Unsupervised ML	AROC of the archetype method 0.77
Yousefi et al[16]	939 Abnormal SAP and 1146 normal SAP in the cross section and 270 glaucoma in the longitudinal database	SAP	Unsupervised ML	Sensitivity 34.5%-63.4% at specificity 87% Comment: it took 3.5 years for ML analysis to detect progression while it took over 3.5 years for other methods to detect progression in 25% of eyes
Belghith et al	27- progressing; 26-stable glaucoma and 40 healthy controls		SD OCT Supervised ML	Sensitivity -78% Specificity in normal eyes-93%; 94% in non-progressive eyes

ML: Machine learning; OCT: Optical coherence tomography.