修回日期: 2006-04-01
接受日期: 2006-04-13
在线出版日期: 2006-06-28
作为癌症第三号杀手, 肝癌的发生、发展是经历多阶段和多因素作用, 通过癌基因启动、促癌和演进等步骤. 目前已知不少基因与肝癌相关, 并开展了前沿性的分子治疗研究, 有些在动物和临床实验中已取得了初步成效. 另一方面, 传统中西医诊疗也随着科技发达而有长足进展, 近年更积极推行综合治疗手段. 在分子诊疗的年代, 本文除了对各诊疗方法及其综合应用方案有较详尽的阐述外, 还就最新的分子诊疗进行了探讨, 期望不久将来, 人类能更有效地防治这威胁着生命的恶性肿瘤.
引文著录: 曹志成. 肝癌的病因与诊疗研究进展. 世界华人消化杂志 2006; 14(18): 1755-1761
Revised: April 1, 2006
Accepted: April 13, 2006
Published online: June 28, 2006
N/A
- Citation: N/A. N/A. Shijie Huaren Xiaohua Zazhi 2006; 14(18): 1755-1761
- URL: https://www.wjgnet.com/1009-3079/full/v14/i18/1755.htm
- DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.11569/wcjd.v14.i18.1755
肝癌为世界第六大常见恶性肿瘤, 据世界卫生组织2002年数据显示, 全球每年新症约63万宗, 死亡人数约60万人, 为癌症第三号杀手.我国年发病人数约35万, 每年约有32万人死于此病, 发病率和死亡率均占癌症中的第二位[1].
肝癌的发生是一个多阶段、多因素累积作用, 经过启动、促癌和演进等步骤, 以及多个基因参与和突变的结果.其病因尚未清楚, 相信与下列因素有关: (1)肝炎病毒. 大量实验和临床研究发现乙型肝炎病毒(HBV)与肝癌发病关系甚为密切. ①HBV与肝癌流行地理分布接近, HBV高发区同样是肝癌高发区, 肝癌患者血清HBV表面抗原(HBsAg)阳性率逾90%; ②HBsAg携带者患肝癌的危险性比正常人群高100倍, 经济条件较好的国家已实行普及性HBV预防疫苗注射, 大大减低肝癌的发病率[2-4]; ③肝癌细胞中存在着HBV DNA的整合, 可激活致癌基因并使抑癌基因发生突变, 其致癌机制主要有两种, 一为顺式启动作用, HBV DNA插入肝细胞原癌基因附近, 直接启动或增强原癌基因的表达, 另一种为反式启动作用, HBV DNA随机整合到肝细胞基因组上, 通过转录并翻译成蛋白质后, 再启动自身基因(启动因子为HBV X抗原)或肝细胞原癌基因[5-6]; ④丙型肝炎病毒(HCV)是发达国家肝癌的主要病因之一, 其患者血清抗HCV阳性率多超过50%. (2)肝硬化.主要是肝炎(病毒性、酒精性、药物性)演变发展的结果, 肝癌发生之危险率和预后随肝纤维化严重程度而增加[7], 约2%-5%肝硬化患者发展为肝癌患者. (3)长期酒精中毒, 容易造成肝硬化而变成肝癌. (4)发霉食物中的黄曲霉毒素(AFT)可诱发肝癌, AFT B1诱发肝癌最小剂量仅需10 μg/d, AFT经肝脏代谢成AFT-2, 3-环氧化物后会攻击DNA, 修饰DNA上的碱基, 使DNA遗传讯息发生错误而失去正常调控功能, 动物实验发现AFT引起在p53第249位的G-T突变, 导致精氨酸密码变为丝氨酸密码而引发肝癌, 亦有动物实验显示AFT与HBV有协同作用, 他们的存在与转化DNA表达有关, HBV是始动因子, 而AFT是促进因子. (5)经进食受感染肝吸虫的生鱼虾后, 肝吸虫在人肝胆管中可存活20-30 a, 严重者可引起肝脓肿或门脉性肝硬化, 甚至可发展成肝癌. (6)分子变异. 早于1994年, 人类肝癌中染色体13q14上发现RB1基因失活并检出与染色体13q杂合缺失相关的RB1蛋白质缺陷, 证实RB1为肝癌相关的抑癌基因[8]; 有研究发现, 肝癌患者的基因缺失常出现在染色体4q21, 6q14和8p22上[9]; 目前已知的致肝癌基因有ras, c-myc mRNA过量表达或基因重排和放大等, 超过50%肝癌中的N-ras呈过高表达, ras有两个活化突变点, 一是第12号密码的第2个核苷酸由原癌基因的GGT变成CGT, 另一为改变第61号密码的编码蛋白质PP21的结构,使之无法结合GTP或GDP来调节细胞的生长与分化, 此外, 肝癌内部转移与c-met的过量表达有关, 多个抑癌基因(如M6P/IGFIIr)同时杂合缺失与肝癌分化有显著相关性[10], 而p53的杂合缺失率最高, 并且与肝癌分化程度密切相关[11], 可见多个抑癌基因的异常积累导致低分化肝癌克隆形成, 并促进肝癌发生; 研究人员亦发现, 两个在肝癌中丢失的抑癌基因DLC-1[12]和DLC-2[13-14], 他们在细胞中起监察作用; 另有研究发现, 在肝癌细胞中染色体17p13.3有高频率杂合性缺失, 继而成功地克隆名为HCCS1的新基因, 动物实验证明该基因有抑制癌细胞生长功能[15]; 亦有研究应用差异显示聚合酶链反应法获得一组肝癌高表达基因(HCCA1, HCCA2和MXR7等)[16]; 此外, 采用逆转录酶聚合链反应法, 发现了一个新的蛋白质HCC-2, 能有效地区分低分化和高分化的肝癌组织[17]; 研究人员运用肝癌系统扫描得到33个染色体缺失区, 并成功利用缺失区的交互作用定义出两种致癌途径, 一为伴随p53突变及其他晚期肝癌特征的高度癌化不稳定DNA, 二为伴随β-catenin突变及与其他晚期肝癌症状呈相反特征的低度癌化较稳定DNA[18]; 亦有报告显示肝癌的发展和CHFR基因甲基化导致表达沉默有关[19]. 另一方面, 处于蛋白质组学年代, 近年研究显示一些蛋白质与肝癌也有密切关系, 如14-3-3γ[20]、增殖细胞抗原和stathmin 1[21]在肝癌中呈高表达, 亦有研究利用蛋白质组学发现前载脂蛋白、α2-HS醣蛋白、载脂蛋白A-IV前体蛋白和PRO1708/PRO2044在肝癌治疗后呈上升趋势[22], 而肝癌的生长也发现和PPAR γ的调控有关[23], 血清CK-19的上升则与肝癌的转移和预后不良呈正相关[24]; 此外, p28GANK在肝癌中mRNA检出率为96.9%[25], 其通过与Rb, CDK4, S6b ATPase的结合参与了信号转导通路,在肝细胞增殖和凋亡中起着重要作用[26]; 另一方面, 肝癌组织中有ets-2[27], c-fms[28]及IGF-Ⅱ mRNA[29]的过量表达, 可见肝癌发病与一些生长因子的表达有关; 近年亦有研究显示, 肝癌患者的树突状细胞呈异常表达[30]; 蛋白质组学研究显示岩藻糖基化与肝癌的发展也密切相关[31].
肝脏只有表面包膜才有神经, 除非癌组织侵犯到包膜, 否则再大的肿瘤也不会痛, 而肝脏只要剩下1/5大小仍可维持正常功能, 故到肝脏被破坏了80%时, 才会产生肝功能失调症状, 因此肝癌除非到了中、晚期, 否则不会痛、也没有症状, 此期间的肝癌称为亚临床期, 只可通过甲胎蛋白(AFP)健康普查才可被发现.当肿瘤逐渐增大时, 肝癌进入临床期, 患者可能出现下列症状: (1)右上腹有间歇性或持续性钝痛或刺痛; (2)右叶下段的肝癌常可于右肋上直接扪及肿块, 左叶肝癌有剑突下肿块或左肋下肿块表现; (3)因肝脏扩大, 肿瘤侵犯膈肌, 刺激横隔膜神经致右肩疼痛; (4)因胆管闭塞, 胆薏在血液积聚引致黄疸; (5)有腹腔积水现象; (6)食欲不振、恶心、体质量下降、疲倦、身体虚弱及发热; (7)旁癌综合征, 如红细胞增多、低血糖等.
由于大部分患者在初诊时病情已进入中、晚期, 通常不能接受任何治疗, 所以及早诊查尤为重要[32]. (1)甲胎蛋白检查. AFP是怀孕期肝脏合成的一种胚胎血清蛋白, 健康成人和儿童血液内只有20 μg/L以下, 如AFP持续4 wk ≥400 μg/L, 便有可能患上肝癌, 但仅凭AFP含量很难早期诊断, 通过对外周血AFP mRNA含量的检测, 则可以早期诊断, 又可判断治疗效果, 是目前诊断肝癌预后的重要分子生物学标志, 可惜其灵敏度不高(54%)[33]; (2)铁蛋白. 近年发现肝癌含有一种酸性的癌胚异铁蛋白, 可能有助于早期诊断; (3)其他肿瘤相关抗原. 部分患者CEA、CA19-9呈阳性表现[34], γ-谷氨酰转移酶mRNA、血管内皮生长因子(VEGF)和白介素-8等也可用作为预后生物标志物[35]; (4)超声波检查.HBV携带者更应定期接受AFP测试及超声波检查; (5)计算机断层扫描; (6)肝动脉造影; (7)活组织检查; (8)HBV拷贝数量度. 采用高特异性的实时聚合酶链反应技术计算血清中HBV拷贝数, 可监测病毒量, 为肝癌预后之重要检验标志[36].
中医学早于二千多年前对肝癌已有认识, 本病属于中医肝积、肥气、症积、膨胀、癖黄等范畴.《难经•五十六难》: ''肝之积, 名曰肥气. 在胁下, 如覆杯, 有头足, 久不愈. ''从中医学的观点, 肝癌的辨证分型可归纳为: (1)肝郁气滞、瘀积成块. 胁下胀痛或刺痛, 右侧为剧, 上腹肿块, 扪之质硬, 表面不平, 疲乏无力, 纳食低下, 嗳气呕逆, 失眠心烦, 舌质正常或偏腻, 时有瘀点或瘀斑, 苔薄白或薄黄, 脉弦细或涩; (2)湿遏热郁、瘀结毒聚. 胁下肿块, 质硬坚实, 痛如锥刺, 脘腹胀满, 或腹大如鼓, 目肤黄疸, 日渐加深, 烦热口干, 小便赤黄, 大便干结, 舌红有瘀斑, 苔黄腻, 脉弦滑数或涩; (3)热积毒聚、灼阴损络. 腹大胀满, 肿块膨隆, 形体赢瘦, 头晕耳鸣, 潮热盗汗, 或高热烦渴, 或牙痛鼻衂, 大便干结, 小便短赤, 舌红少津, 苔薄黄或光剥, 脉弦细数; (4)肾阴亏虚、水不涵木. 五心烦热, 低热盗汗, 胁肋隐痛, 头晕目眩, 腰酸腿软, 纳少消瘦, 倦怠无力, 舌红少苔, 或光剥有裂纹, 脉细弦数或细涩无力; (5)脾虚失运、水湿停留. 神疲乏力, 纳呆消瘦, 胁痛腹胀, 面浮肢肿, 腹泻时作, 或伴腹水, 舌µ胖有齿痕, 脉弦滑或濡细[37].
大部分肝癌患者在诊断时已进入中、晚期, 而且肝脏的血液供应丰富, 容易在器官内外作血源性转移, 导致治疗上的困难, 其治疗方式应为多样化组合, 须视乎患者情况而选择不同的治疗方式或综合治疗.
(1)外科根治手术. 是医治肝癌的首选方法, 一般人留下1/5肝脏就可以维持生命, 手术后1 a生存率达70 %, 但只有约20%患者能接受手术治疗; (2)药物治疗. 化学药物对肝癌的治疗效果有限, 患者的Mcl-1高表达可影响化疗效果[38], 故化疗多用于姑息性治疗, iv doxorubicin为一代表药物, 近年更引进联合化疗, 如doxorubicin, cisplatin和capecitabine联合使用[39], gemcitabine和cisplatin联合化疗晚期肝癌患者更进入临床试验第二期[40], 但药物治疗虽具缓解效果, 却无法根治, 其主要方法有三, 一为肝动脉栓塞疗法, 先把化疗药物由动脉导管选择性地注入肝癌的营养血管, 再利用栓塞剂将支配肝癌之动脉栓塞, 以阻止癌肿继续生长或缩小其体积; 二为乙醇注射疗法, 是目前局部治疗肝癌最有效方法之一, 经皮肤把纯乙醇直接注入肿瘤以吸干细胞的水分, 使肿瘤枯死, 适用于直径小于3 cm或手术后复发的早期肿瘤; 三为免疫疗法, 干扰素、肿瘤坏死因子、白介素-2和淋巴因子激活杀伤细胞治疗肝癌有一定疗效[41], 更有尝试注射抗CD40抗体以增强免疫治疗的效果[42], 近年亦有研究用辐射免疫抗VEGF的单株纯种抗体, 利用磁性纳米颗粒作为载体, 在裸鼠模型上取得了满意疗效[43], 另有用乙型肝炎[44-45]和丙型肝炎[46]疫苗来防治肝癌; (3)放射治疗.过去由于定位困难, 且放疗对肝肿瘤疗效不佳, 更对临近正常肝组织造成严重伤害, 所以一般不建议此法, 但随着计算机三维空间定位技术的进步[47-48], 能有效地将放疗剂量集中在肝癌组织而避免伤害附近的正常组织, 故局部肿瘤放疗仍有临床治疗价值, 而碳离子束放疗更藉着其生物和物理学优势, 对肝癌治疗具一定成效[49]; (4)其他姑息性外科治疗. 适用于较大或分布在大血管区的癌肿, 包括冷冻治疗、激光治疗、微波治疗[50]等; (5)肝脏移植. 适用于<5 cm的肿瘤, 全部肿瘤要局限在肝脏内, 且并未侵入血管[51].
中医治疗辨证论治, 以补虚泻实, 调整阴阳为原则, 肝癌的主要治则治法有: (1)气滞血瘀者, 治宜疏肝理气, 活血化瘀, 可用小柴胡汤合大黄鳖虫丸加减; (2)湿热瘀结者, 治宜清热利湿, 解毒破结, 可用茵陈蒿汤合膈下逐瘀汤加减; (3)热毒伤阴者, 治宜养阴清热, 解毒化瘀, 可用犀角地黄汤加减; (4)脾虚湿困者, 治宜益气健脾, 化湿消积, 可用参苓白术散加减, 实验证明, 健脾祛湿中药能有效治疗肝癌腹水症状[52]; (5)肝肾阴虚者, 治宜柔肝滋肾, 育阴潜阳, 可用一贯煎合杞菊地黄丸加减; (6)和法调理. 肝癌患者脏¸虚衰, 气血失和, 阴阳失调, 虚实并见, 寒热错杂, 经祛瘀、解毒、消导无效者, 可采用和解少阳(代表方为小柴胡汤)、调和肠胃(代表方为半夏泻心汤)、调和肝脾(代表方为四逆散)等法, 或多法灵活并用; (7)针灸疗法. 施于肝癌疼痛者, 主穴足三里, 配穴阳陵泉、期门、章门、三阴交.
手术、化疗、放疗是目前治疗肝癌的主要方法, 配合中医治疗, 可减轻毒副反应, 加强抗癌作用, 增强免疫功能, 防止复发转移, 提高生存质量和生存率, 因此积极运用综合治疗是提高疗效的重要途径[53-54]. (1)中医与手术结合. 术前中医扶正治疗, 旨在控制肝癌发展, 提高手术切除率和减少并发症, 多用补气养血、健脾补肾方, 如当归地黄汤、四君子汤、八珍汤、十全大补汤等, 术后促进机体及肝功能的恢复可用小柴胡汤, 益气固表可用玉屏风散, 养阴生津可用增液汤, 调理脾胃可用香砂六君子汤; (2)中医与化疗结合. 化疗损气伤血, 中医防治毒副反应以补气养血、健脾和胃、滋补肝肾为主, 全身反应或骨髓抑制者, 可用八珍汤或升血调元汤, 消化道反应可用香砂六君子汤, 中毒性肝炎可用茵陈蒿汤, 肾功能损伤可用六味地黄汤, 炎症反应可加用清热解毒药(如银花、连翘、板蓝根、蒲公英、黄连等). 另一方面, 一些扶正中药具化疗增敏作用, 动物与临床实验证实猪苓多糖能增强化疗效果, 中药配合铂类化疗药物治疗肝癌能增强疗效[55]; (3)中医与放疗结合. 放射线为热毒之邪、耗气伤阴, 治以养阴益气、清热解毒、凉补气血为主, 骨髓抑制可用八珍汤或升血调元汤, 放射性脑反应可用五苓散合六味地黄丸, 放射性肝炎可用茵陈蒿汤, 放射性胃肠道反应可用香砂六君子汤, 另一方面, 中药配合放疗有一定协同增效作用, 动物与临床实验证明汉防己甲素为有效的放射增敏剂, 川芎红花注射液及扶正增效方(含黄芪、枸杞、女贞子、太子参、红花、苏木等)通过改善癌细胞的缺氧状态起增敏作用. 此外, 坚持长期服用扶正中药是提高远期疗效和减少肿瘤复发的关键, 西医治疗后以益气养阴扶正辅以清热解毒散结等袪邪疗法, 可提高治愈效果; (4)临床试验证明, 人参黄芪中药结合微波治疗能消灭肝癌细胞, 增强机体免疫力, 预防转移, 为中晚期不能手术治疗病例的有效疗法, 有助改善生存质量, 延长患者生存期[56].
《素问•骨空论》:"调其阴阳, 不足则补, 有余则泻."肝癌的病因为邪毒郁积、湿热伤脾、肝肾阴虚, 中医食疗以健脾袪湿、滋养肝肾为主. (1)鸡薏苡米粥. 用于晚期气短乏力、不思饮食者, 具补中益气、健脾利水功效; (2)鲜藕旱莲薏. 用于烦热口苦、便血量少者, 具凉血止血、补肾益阴功效; (3)田七生地水蛇汤. 用于疼痛不适、或有黄疸发斑者, 具滋阴养血、袪瘀消征功效; (4)荷菊蒸田鸡. 用于黄疸腹水、腹胀纳呆者, 具清热解毒、健脾养胃功效; (5)泥鳅黑豆瘦肉汤. 用于口干纳呆或伴黄疸腹水者, 具补中健脾、滋阴袪湿功效; (6)于术田螺兔肉饮. 用于晚期口干纳呆并腹水、黄疸者, 具健脾利水、清热解毒功效; (7)半枝莲水鱼汤. 用于晚期上腹肿痛、形体虚弱者, 具散瘀清热、滋阴补虚功效; (8)土茯苓龟薏. 用于晚期腹水肢肿、形体虚弱者. 具解毒袪湿、滋阴补血功效; (9)淮山田七茨实乌龟汤. 用于晚期体虚疼痛不适者, 具滋补脾肾、袪瘀消瘤功效; (10)参麦牛奶饮. 用于晚期烦热口干、形体虚衰者. 具清肝健脾、补气养阴功效.
肝癌常在瘤体不大时就发生血管内侵犯, 门静脉瘤栓形成, 肝内播散及出现新癌病灶等, 严重影响疗效及预后, 分子治疗有助防止复发与转移, 在综合治疗中发挥着独特的作用. (1)抑癌基因治疗. 利用重组腺病毒载体, 将抑癌基因导入肝癌细胞株中, 可抑制肿瘤生长和诱导癌细胞凋亡, 在研究中的抑癌基因有p53, DCC, NF1, NF2, RB, p16, WT1, APC和VHL等[57]. (2)联合分子治疗. 研究表明, 多基因的联合应用优于单基因的抗瘤效果, 包括抑癌基因和自杀基因联合应用, 或自杀基因和免疫基因联合应用, 选择两种密切相关的基因作为靶基因, 联合两种有协同作用的凋亡基因或蛋白质, 比单用一种凋亡基因或蛋白质有更强的杀伤和抑制肝癌细胞生长作用, 如已知VP22蛋白质在细胞间转运中起重要作用, 把P53和VP22融合蛋白质的逆转录病毒表达载体注射入肝癌荷瘤小鼠, 发现P53-VP22蛋白质的转录活性远比单独P53高, 具有更强的抗癌活性[58]. (3)反义疗法. 有报告显示, siRNA-1和siRNA-7能有效抑制HBV的基因表达[59], 亦有研究发现VEGF RNA在裸鼠上能有效抑制肿瘤血管生成, 若RNA未能与所有靶基因mRNA结合, 可应用RNAi技术[60-61]. (4)调控治疗. 利用药物对癌细胞内功能核酸3'或5'调控区进行表达调控治疗, 可把癌细胞恶性度减弱[62]. (5)细胞因子基因治疗. 用逆转录病毒包装株将细胞因子基因注射入肝癌细胞系, 以增强癌细胞对外周血单核细胞的敏感性, 诱导机体抗癌免疫效应, 导致体内肝癌自发消退, 主要研究的细胞因子有白介素-2, 白介素-12, IFN-γ, TNF-α和NKG5-SV等[63-64]. (6)共刺激分子治疗. 把共刺激分子DNA插入肝癌细胞中使其表达, 刺激机体产生免疫反应. 近年受到重视的共刺激信号有CD28, 4-1BB和B7-1的单独或协同表达, 动物实验证明共刺激分子治疗可降低接种成瘤率, 诱导机体产生针对亲本野生型肿瘤的长期免疫[65]. 此外, 肝癌细胞表面缺乏肿瘤特异性抗原及组织兼容性复合物类抗原, 将小鼠MHC-I和mIL-12基因导入人肝癌细胞以提高MHC抗原表达, 可促进机体对抗原的识别和应答, 荷瘤裸鼠体内T细胞对转MHC肝癌细胞的杀伤明显增强[66]. (7)抑制血管生成. 研究证实, 抑制肿瘤新生血管生成能够大大缓减肿瘤的发展, 可采用血管生成抑制剂来改变肿瘤血管生成, 进而抑制体内肿瘤生长[67]. (8)免疫治疗. 临床试验证明, 联合化疗结合bevacizumab能有效治疗晚期肝癌患者[68].
肝癌是极严重的疾病, 近年治疗效果虽然不断改善, 但非手术疗法尚难望达到根治效果, 治愈者仍只占少数. 尽管分子靶向治疗研究取得了很多有意义的结果[69], 但仍存在着许多问题尚待解决, 如缺乏高效载体系统、缺乏特异性导向性载体、肝癌动物模型与人体肿瘤存在差异等. 随着分子生物学、免疫学、纳米技术和肿瘤学研究的不断深入[70-71], 基因组学和蛋白质组学等高通量技术平台的迅猛进展[72], 外源基因转导和表达技术的提高, 细胞靶向性与位点靶向性载体的构建[73-74], 生物信息数据库的日趋完备, 期望肝癌的分子治疗能结合现有的治疗手段, 成为一种具有广泛临床应用前景的综合疗法.
肝癌为世界第六大常见恶性肿瘤, 大部分患者在初诊时病情已进入中、晚期, 治愈率低, 欲攻克这恶性肿瘤, 需利用高科技平台, 如基因组学和蛋白质组学, 开发早期诊断分子标志, 结合中西医诊疗和分子治疗, 以期取得更佳疗效.
本文对目前肝癌的中西医综合诊疗做了详尽的介绍, 还剖析肝癌的成因, 并对前沿性的分子治疗作了具体的阐述.
一般综述在介绍肝癌的病因和诊治时, 很少从分子层面加以剖析, 本文对肝癌患者的中西医综合诊疗及分子治疗做了较多的论述.
本文对肝癌的成因与诊疗做了较全面的总结和资料汇编, 对临床研究有一定参考作用.
综合治疗: 根据患者的机体状况和病情, 合理地应用现有的诊疗手段, 包括传统中西医诊疗和前沿性分子治疗, 以期提高治愈率, 改善患者生存质量.
本文对肝癌的病因、诊断及综合治疗进行了较全面的阐述, 尤其是谈及到中西医结合的治疗, 有意义. 文章的编排、视角、论述的方式和语言等, 均有香港的特色.
电编:李琪 编辑:潘伯荣
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