修回日期: 2003-05-20
接受日期: 2003-06-20
在线出版日期: 2003-11-15
过去50 a来, 尽管手术方式和辅助治疗手段不断发展, 结直肠癌根治性手术后生存率却无太大变化, 约50%患者术后因局部复发或转移而最终死亡. 预后不良的主要原因之一是就诊时绝大部分患者已属中晚期, 仅56%患者可行根治性切除, 因此死因直接与分期较晚和是否合理选择治疗方法有重要关联. 今天病理分期被认为是前瞻性评价原发病灶范围、正确选定治疗方案和预测根治性手术后生存率和正确制定术后随访计划具有极重要的临床意义. 自从1926 Lockhart和Mummery认识到直肠癌病理分期的重要性并首次提出分期系统以来, 结直肠癌病理分期系统的临床应用已有近80 a历史, 尽管分期方法颇多, 但基本依据主要由三大要素构成: 即原发灶范围、区域淋巴结转移有否和远处转移状况, 当今趋势是强调结合临床的病理分期, 本文详述了病理分期的临床意义, 手术前后各种临床病理分期方法, 病理分期的发展和临床应用现况并比较了各分期优缺点. 虽然分期方法众多, 众说纷纭, 但基本是以经典的Dukes分期为基础, 目前常用的方法还是Dukes分期和TNM分期系统, Australian分期和中国分期均为Dukes分期的改良. 澳大利亚Concord Hospital临床病理分期把切缘是否有癌细胞残留作为分期标准之一似乎欠合理, 因切缘是否有癌细胞残留受诸多因素影响. 新的记分分期系统虽简便易行, 但临床应用病例不多, 还需进一步临床研究. 虽然纯病理特征有其决定性临床意义, 但许多临床特征对判断预后也至关重要, 因此晚近强调结合临床的临床病理分期.
引文著录: 卿三华. 结、直肠癌临床病理分期系统及其临床意义. 世界华人消化杂志 2003; 11(11): 1760-1763
Revised: May 20, 2003
Accepted: June 20, 2003
Published online: November 15, 2003
N/A
- Citation: N/A. N/A. Shijie Huaren Xiaohua Zazhi 2003; 11(11): 1760-1763
- URL: https://www.wjgnet.com/1009-3079/full/v11/i11/1760.htm
- DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.11569/wcjd.v11.i11.1760
过去50 a来, 结、直肠癌根治术后生存率无明显变化, 50%患者术后因局部复发或转移而最终死亡[1-7]. 预后不良的主要原因之一是就诊时已属中晚期, 仅56%患者可行根治性切除[8], 因此死因与分期较晚和是否合理选择治疗方法有直接关联. 今天病理分期被认为是前瞻性评价原发病灶范围、正确选定治疗方案和预测根治性手术后生存率和正确制定术后随访计划最关键的因素. 虽然纯病理特征有其决定性临床意义, 但许多临床特征对判断预后也极具重要意义, 因此近期强调结合临床的临床病理分期. 一个世纪以来, 直肠癌病理分期众多, 但基本依据主要由三大要素构成: 原发灶范围、区域淋巴结转移和远处转移[9-15].
方便易行, 直观准确, 可确定肿瘤大小、浸润肠周径范围、距肛缘距离和表面特征等. 但较主观、难准确判定浸润深度, 其准确性取决于医师经验, 有经验的结、直肠外科医师准确率是67-83%, 而一般普外科医师仅为44-78%[16]. 但其不能评估淋巴结转移(表1)[17].
分期 | 指检表现 | 位置 | 病理分期符合率(%) |
CS I | 非常活动 | 肿瘤位于黏膜和黏膜下 | 70 |
CS II | 活动但不能在肠壁上推动 | 肿瘤侵犯肠壁但未穿透肠壁 | 75 |
CS III | 可活动但肠壁轻微固定 | 穿透肠壁侵犯直肠周围脂肪 | 90 |
CS IV | 肿瘤、肠壁均固定 | 肿瘤侵犯邻近器官或组织结构 |
可准确确定肿瘤肛缘距离, 同样可确定大小、肠周径范围、表面特征, 还可活检.
1988年Hildebrandt 和Feilf根据TNM分期提出术前直肠腔内超声检查, 其准确率在评价肿瘤浸润深度高达87-95%, 淋巴结转移为81%, 特异性90%, 敏感性88%, 与病理分期的吻合率是90%. 因此ERUS是术前评价直肠癌浸润深度和淋巴转移最经济、实用、准确的方法(表2)[18-20].
分期 | 肿瘤浸润超声表现 |
UT1 | 黏膜或黏膜下 |
UT2 | 浸润但未穿透肠壁肌层 |
UT3 | 浸润直肠周围脂肪 |
UT4 | 浸润直肠周围器官 |
N0 | 无增大淋巴结 |
N1 | 有增大淋巴结 |
自1932年Dukes提出直肠癌分期标准后, 各国学者在临床实践中把Dukes方法多次改良, 提出众多分期方法, 最具代表性有以下分期. (1)Dukes分期: 1932年英国St.Mark医院Cuthbert E. Dukes根据2 000例手术切除标本的肿瘤浸润深度和淋巴结转移情况分为: A期肿瘤局限在肠壁内; B期 肿瘤侵犯肠壁外组织结构; C期 区域淋巴结转移[17] (表4). 为直肠癌患者判断预后提供了现代病理学基础. 该系统是最经典分期, 至今仍是最常用的方法. (2)Astler and Coller分期[39-46] : 在Dukes分期基础上, 根据肿瘤浸润肠壁肌层和浆膜层情况把B和C两期又分别分为两亚型(表4), 其5 a生存率完全不同, A期为95%, B期75%, C1期仅为42.8%, C2期则低达22.4%. (3) Australian分期[17] : 该分期特点是把临床、手术发现和切除标本结合研究分出9个亚期, 虽然较复杂, 但判断预后较Dukes和Astler and Coller分期更准确, 比pTNM更简便[47-53]. 他把在手术时不能根治性切除确定为D期, 明确了肿瘤扩散的解剖范围(表4). (4)中国分期[54-55] : 1978年全国大肠癌科研协作杭州会议综合以上分期优缺点提出中国分期的试行方案: A0: 肿瘤局限于黏膜层或原位癌; A1: 肿瘤侵及黏膜下层; A2: 肿瘤侵犯肌层; B: 肿瘤穿透肠壁, 侵及肠周脂肪结缔组织或邻近器官, 无淋巴结转移, 尚可整块切除; C1: 肿瘤附近淋巴结有转移; C2: 肠系膜血管根部淋巴结有转移; D: 远处脏器有转移如肝、肺、骨骼、脑等或远处淋巴结如锁骨上淋巴结有转移, 或肠系膜血管根部淋巴结伴主动脉旁淋巴结有转移或腹膜腔广泛转移, 冰冻盆腔. 1982年苏州会议对3 122例有完整病理及随访资料病例进行分析比较, 认为A0和A1期5 a生存率无差别, 没必要分开而合并为A1期; 肿瘤浸润浅肌层和深肌层间5a生存率有显著差别, 从而把浸润浅肌层和深肌层分别定为A1和 A2; 虽然肿瘤未穿过和已穿过浆膜层5 a生存率有差别, 但考虑到直肠腹膜返折以下, 升结肠和降结肠腹膜外部分无浆膜, 难以区分浆膜内外, 所以不把Dukes B期再分两亚期; C1、C2两亚期区分也无实际临床意义; 因此苏州会议修改后提出我国大肠癌新的分期(表4). (5) TNM分期: 1986年美国癌症联合会 (american joint committee on cancer, AJCC)首次提出结、直肠癌TNM分期系统[32,33,56-59], 1997年该会和国际抗癌联盟 (international union against cancer, UICC) 对该分期进行修改, 提出结直肠癌新的TNM分期系统), 他较Dukes分期更准确详细的反映临床和病理情况并强调肿瘤局部浸润深度、淋巴结转移的数量和部位以及是否有远处转移(表5、表6)[17,27]. (6)记分分期系统: Chan et al [34]认为影响肿瘤复发转移和生存率最关键三要素: 静脉浸润(经血循环、远处转移)、穿透肠壁深度和淋巴结转移, 据此于1999年提出新的4分期记分分组系统(表7), 根据积分分为4组, 以示疾病严重程度、复发时间和复发率、死亡时间和5 a生存率. 作者对363例以色列和231例美国结、直肠癌患者按此分期系统并随访5 a以上, 复发病例平均首次复发时间: 1、2、3、4组分别为1.3、2.0、1.8、1.3 a; 因癌死亡平均时间: 1、2组和3、4组分别为3.6、2.4 a 作者认为该法把以往经血循环、远处转移(静脉浸润)和原发肿瘤局部区域浸润程度(T和N)参数相结合, 因此在评价患者预后方面优于Dukes, Astler-Coller和TNM分期系统, 同时简便易行, 不需特殊设备和检查(tests), 可广泛应用于世界上任何级别医疗机构. 他可指导辅助治疗方法选择、个体化方案和术后随访应用. 必须强调所有外科标本需经有经验的病理学家评价诊断和报告是否有静脉浸润.
Dukes 1932 | Astler Coller 1954 | 中国 杭州 1978 | Australian 1981 | 中国 苏州 1984 | 病变范围特征 |
Aa | A | A0 | A1 | A1 | 肿瘤局限在黏膜内 |
A1 | A2 | 肿瘤局限在黏膜下 | |||
B1 | A2 | A3 | A2 | 肿瘤浸润肠壁肌层 | |
B2 | B1 | A3 | 肿瘤穿过肠壁肌层 | ||
B2 | 肿瘤侵犯肠壁浆膜层 | ||||
B | B | B | 肿瘤穿过浆膜或邻近脏器 | ||
或结构受侵犯 | |||||
Cb | C1 | C1 | Cb | 局部淋巴结转移 | |
C2 | C2 | 血管根部淋巴结转移 | |||
C1 | 肿瘤未穿过浆膜, 淋巴结转移 | ||||
C2 | 肿瘤穿过浆膜, 淋巴结转移 | ||||
Dc | D1 | Dc | 局部广泛浸润, 不能整块切除 | ||
D2 | 远处转移 |
肿瘤(T) | TX | 原发瘤不能确定或不能确定浸润深度 |
T0 | 无原发灶 | |
Tis | 原位癌(黏膜内) | |
T1 | 侵犯黏膜下 | |
T2 | 侵犯肠壁肌层 | |
T3 | 穿破肠壁肌层到浆膜下层 | |
T4 | 穿透浆膜或直接侵犯其他器官或组织结构 | |
区域 (N) | NX | 不能确定区域淋巴结 |
淋巴结 | N0 | 无区域淋巴结转移 |
N1 | 结肠或直肠周围1-3枚淋巴结转移 | |
N2 | 结肠或直肠周围大于或等于4枚淋巴结转移 | |
N3 | 沿命名的结肠血管干旁的任何淋巴结转移 | |
远处(M) | MX | 不能确定远处转移 |
M0 | 无转移 | |
M1 | 有 |
分期 | T | N | M | Dukes分期 |
0 | Tis | N0 | M0 | |
I | T1 | N0 | M0 | A |
T2 | N0 | M0 | ||
II | T3 | N0 | M0 | B |
T4 | N0 | M0 | ||
III | 任何T | N1 | M0 | C |
任何T | N2 N3 | M0 | ||
IV | 任何T | 任何N | M1 |
特征 | 记分 | |
a. 静脉浸润 | 有-1 | |
无-0 | ||
b. 穿透肠壁 | 浆膜下/浆膜/肠周脂肪-1 | |
c. 区域淋巴结转移 | 有-1 | |
无-0 | ||
总积分 | 预后分组 | 预后 |
0 | 1 | 优 |
1 | 2 | 良好 |
2 | 3 | 差 |
3 | 4 | 极差 |
总之, 结直肠癌临床病理分期方法颇多, 当今趋势是强调临床病理分期, 但不管分期方法怎样变化都基本是以Dukes分期为基础, 目前最常用的方法还是Dukes分期和TNM分期, Australian 分期和中国分期均为Dukes分期的改良, 记分分期系统虽简便易行, 但临床应用的单位和病例不多, 还需进一步临床研究确定其应用价值.
1. | Wexner SD, Rotholtz NA. Surgeon influenced variables in resectional rectal cancer surgery. Dis Colon Rectum. 2000;43:1606-1627. [DOI] |
2. | Harris GJ, Church JM, Senagore AJ, Lavery IC, Hull TL, Strong SA, Fazio VW. Factors affecting local recurrence of colonic adenocarcinoma. Dis Colon Rectum. 2002;45:1029-1034. [DOI] |
3. | Ries LA, Wingo PA, Miller DS, Howe HL, Weir HK, Rosenberg HM, Vernon SW, Cronin K, Edwards BK. The annual report to the nation on the status of cancer, 1973-1997, with a special section on colorectal cancer. Cancer. 2000;88:2398-2424. [DOI] |
4. | Greenlee RT, Murray T, Bolden S, Wingo PA. Cancer statistics, 2000. CA Cancer J Clin. 2000;50:7-33. [DOI] |
5. | Kanemitsu Y, Kato T, Hirai T, Yasui K, Morimoto T, Shimizu Y, Kodera Y, Yamamura Y. Survival after curative resection for mucinous adenocarcinoma of the colorectum. Dis Colon Rectum. 2003;46:160-167. [DOI] |
6. | Rifkin MD, Ehrlich SM, Marks G. Staging of rectal carcinoma: prospective comparison of endorectal US and CT. Radiology. 1989;170:319-22. [PubMed] |
7. | Indinnimeo M, Cicchini C, Stazi A, Limiti MR, Ghini C, Mingazzini P, Vecchione A. Immunohistochemical assessment of Ki-67 as prognostic cellular proliferation marker in anal canal carcinoma. J Exp Clin Cancer Res. 2000;19:471-475. [PubMed] |
8. | Ruo L, Guillem JG. Major 20th-century advancements in the management of rectal cancer. Dis Colon Rectum. 1999;42:563-578. [DOI] |
9. | De Leon MP, Sant M, Micheli A. Clinical and pathologic prognostic indicators in colorectal cancer. Cancer. 1992;69:626-635. |
10. | Kim HJ, Wong WD. Role of endorectal ultrasound in the conservative management of rectal cancers. S. emin Surg Oncol. 2000;19:358-366. |
11. | Kapiteijn E, van De Velde CJ. European trials with total mesorectal excision. Semin Surg Oncol. 2000;19:350-357. [DOI] |
12. | Maciejewski A, Lange D, Wloch J. Case report of schwannoma of the rectum梒linical and pathological contribution. Med Sci Monit. 2000;6:779-782. [PubMed] |
13. | Ichelassi F, Ayala JJ, Balestracci T, Goldberg R, Chappell R, Block GE. Verification of a new clilicopathologic staging system for colorectaladenocarcinoma. Ann Surg. 1991;214:11-18. |
14. | Randi M, Lionetto R, Bini A, Francioni G, Accarpio G, Anfossi A, Ballario E, Becchi G, Bonilauri S, Carobbi A, Cavaliere P, Garcea D, Giuliani L, Morziani E, Mosca F, Mussa A, Pasqualini M, Poddie D, Tonetti F, Zardo L, Rosso R. Progjostic evaluation of stage B colon cancer patients is improved by an adequate lymphadenectomy. Ann Surg. 2002;235:458-463. [DOI] |
15. | Wheeler JM, Warren BF, Mortensen NJ, Ekanyaka N, Kulacoglu H, Jones AC, George BD, Kettlewell MG. Quantification of histologic regression of rectal cancer after irradiation. A proposal for a modified staging system. Dis Colon Rectum. 2002;45:1051-1056. |
16. | Waizer A, Powsner E, Russo I, Hadar S, Cytron S, Lombrozo R, Wolloch Y, Antebi E. Prospective comparative study of magnetic resonance imaging versus transrectal ultrasound for preoperative staging and follow-up of rectal cancer. Preliminary report. Dis Colon Rectum. 1991;34:1068-1072. [DOI] |
17. | Zerhouni EA, Rutter C, Hamilton SR, Balfe DM, Megibow AJ, Francis IR, Moss AA, Heiken JP, Tempany CM, Aisen AM, Weinreb JC, Gatsonis C, McNeil BJ. CT and MR imaging in the staging of colorectal carcinoma: report of the radiology dianostic oncology group II. Radiology. 1996;200:443-451. [DOI] |
18. | Chapuis PH, Fisher R, Dent OF, Newland RC, Pheils MT. The relationship between different staging methods and survival in colorectal carcinoma. Dis Colon Rectum. 1985;28:158-161. [DOI] |
19. | Rothenberger DA, Wong WD. Pre-operative assessment of patients with rectal cancer. Semin Colon Rectal Surg. 1990;1:2-10. |
20. | Hildebrandt U, Feifel G. Preoperative staging of rectal cancer by intrarectal ultrasound. Dis Colon Retum. 1985;28:41-46. [DOI] |
21. | Hundt W, Braunschweig R, Reiser M. Evaluation of spiral CT in staging of colon and rectum carcinoma. Eur Radiol. 1999;9:78-84. [DOI] |
22. | Herzog U, von Flue M, Tondelli P, Schuppisser JP. How accurate is endorectal ultrasound in the preoperative staging of rectal cancer? Dis Colon Rectum. 1993;36:127-134. [DOI] |
25. | Chapuis PH, Pent OF, Newland RC, Bokey EL, Pheils MT. An evaluation of the American Joint Committee (pTNM) staging method for cancer of the colon and rectum. Dis Colon Rectum. 1986;29:6-10. |
26. | Bolognese A, Cardi M, Muttillo IA, Barbarosos A, Bocchetti T, Valabrega S. Total mesorectal excision for surgical treatment of rectal cancer. J Surg Oncol. 2000;74:21-23. [DOI] |
27. | Blomqvist L, Ohlsen H, Hindmarsh T, Jonsson E, Holm T. Local recurrence of rectal cancer: MR imaging before and after oral superparamagnetic particles vs contrast-enhanced computed tomography. Eur Radiol. 2000;10:1383-1389. [DOI] |
28. | Nakachi A, Miyazato H, Oshiro T, Shimoji H, Shiraishi M, Muto Y. Granular cell tumor of the rectum: a case report and review of the literature. J Gastroenterol. 2000;35:631-634. |
29. | Pajkos G, Kiss I, Sandor J, Ember I, Kishazi P. The prognostic value of the presence of mutations at the codons 12, 13, 61 of K-ras oncogene in colorectal cancer. Anticancer Res. 2000;20:1695-701. |
30. | Osch J. The new TNM classfication in gastroenterology. Endoscopic Guideline. 1998;30:643-649. |
31. | Hodgman CC, MacCarty RL, Wolff BG. Preoperative staging of rectal carcinoma by computed tomography and 0.15T magnetic resonance imaging. Preliminary report. Dis Colon Rectum. 1986;29:446-450. [DOI] |
32. | Ueno H, Yamauchi C, Hase K, Ichikura T, Mochizuki H. Clinicopathological study of intrapelvic cancer spread to the iliac area in lower rectal adenocarcinoma by serial sectioning. Br J Surg. 1999;86:1532-1537. [DOI] |
33. | Ko JM, Cheung MH, Wong C, Lau K, Tang CM, Kwan MW, Lung ML. L-myc genotypes in Hong Kong Chinese colorectal carcinoma patients. Oncol Rep. 1999;6:441-444. [DOI] |
34. | Chan AK, Wong AO, Langevin J, Jenken D, Heine J, Buie D, Johnson DR. Preoperative chemotherapy and pelvic radiation for tethered or fixed rectal cancer: a phase II dose escalation study. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2000;48:843-856. |
35. | Kim D, Wong WD, Bleday R. Rectal Carcinoma: Staging the disease. In: Beck DE, Wexner SD, eds. Fundamentals of anorectal surgery. Philadelphia: WB Saunders. 1998;278-300. |
36. | Mohiuddin M, Regine WF, John WJ, Hagihara PF, McGrath PC, Kenady DE, Marks G. Preoperative chemoradiation in fixed distal rectal cancer: dose time factors for pathological complete response. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2000;46:883-888. [DOI] |
37. | Kafka NJ, Enker WE. Total mesorectal excision with autonomic nerve preservation: a new foundation for the evaluation of multi-disciplinary adjuvant therapy in the management of rectal cancers. Ann Chir. 1999;53:996-1002. |
38. | Ceelen W, Pattyn P. Total mesorectal excision in the treatment of rectal cancer: a review. Acta Chir Belg. 2000;100:94-99. [PubMed] |
39. | Saadia R, Schein M. The place of intraoperative antegrade colonic irrigation in emergency left-sided colonic surgery. Dis Colon Rectum. 1989;32:78-81. [DOI] |
40. | Severini A, Civelli EM, Uslenghi E, Cozzi G, Salvetti M, Milella M, Gallino G, Bonfanti G, Belli F, Leo E. Diagnostic and interventional radiology in the post-operative period and follow-up of patients after rectal resection with coloanal anastomosis. Eur Radiol. 2000;10:1101-1105. [DOI] |
41. | Janjan NA, Abbruzzese J, Pazdur R, Khoo VS, Cleary K, Dubrow R, Ajani J, Rich TA, Goswitz MS, Evetts PA, Allen PK, Lynch PM, Skibber JM. Prognostic implications of response to preoperative infusional chemoradiation in locally advanced rectal cancer. Radiother Oncol. 1999;51:153-160. [DOI] |
42. | Starck M, Bohe M, Fork FT, Lindstrom C, Sjoberg S. Endoluminal ultrasound and low-field magnetic resonance imaging are superior to clinical examination in the preoperative staging of rectal cancer. Fur J Surg. 1995;161:841-845. |
43. | Palacios Fanlo M, Ramirez Rodriguez J, Aguilella Diago V, Arribas Del Amo D, Martinez Diez M, Lozano Mantecon R. Endoluminal ultrasography for rectal tumors: efficacy, sources of error and limitations. R. ev Esp Enferm Dig. 2000;92:222-231. [PubMed] |
44. | Bufalari A, Boselli C, Giustozzi G, Moggi L. Locally advanced rectal cancer: a multivariate analysis of outcome risk factors. J Surg Oncol. 2000;74:2-10. [DOI] |
45. | Gibbs P, Chao MW, Tjandra JJ. Optimizing the outcome for patients with rectal cancer. Dis Colon Rectum. 2003;46:389-402. [DOI] |
46. | Chen HS, Sheen-Chen SM. Obstruction and perforation in colorectal adenocarcinoma: an analysis of prognosis and current trends. Surgery. 2000;127:370-376. |
47. | Fujita S, Akasu T, Moriya Y. Resection of synchronous liver metastases from colorectal cancer. Jpn J Clin Oncol. 2000;30:7-11. [DOI] |
48. | Hundt W, Braunschweig R, Reiser M. Evaluation of spiral CT in staging of colon and rectum carcinoma. Eur Radiol. 1999;9:78-84. [DOI] |
49. | Kapiteijn E, Kranenbarg EK, Steup WH, Taat CW, Rutten HJ, Wiggers T, van Krieken JH, Hermans J, Leer JW, van de Velde CJ. Total mesorectal excision (TME) with or without preoperative radiotherapy in the treatment of primary rectal cancer. Prospective randomised trial with standard operative and histopathological techniques. Dutch colorectal cancer group. Eur J Surg. 1999;165:410-420. |
50. | Barbaro B, Schulsinger A, Valentini V, Marano P, Rotman M. The accuracy of transrectal ultrasound in predicting the pathological stage of low-lying rectal cancer after preoperative chemoradiation therapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1999;43:1043-1047. [DOI] |
51. | Drew PJ, Farouk R, Turnbull LW, Ward SC, Hartley JE, Monson JR. Preoperative magnetic resonance staging of rectal cancer with an endorectal coil and dynamic gadolinium enhancement. Br J Surg. 1999;86:250-254. [DOI] |
52. | Salo JC, Paty PB, Guillem J, Minsky BD, Harrison LB, Cohen AM. Surgical salvage of recurrent rectal carcinoma after curative resection: a 10-year experience. Ann Surg Oncol. 1999;6:131-132. |
53. | Tang R, Wang JY, Tsao KC, Ho YS. Lymphangiosis as a predictor of outcome in patients with primary diffusely infiltrative adenocarcinoma of the colon and rectum. Arch Surg. 1999;134:157-160. [DOI] |
54. | Buglioni S, D'Agnano I, Cosimelli M, Vasselli S, D'Angelo C, Tedesco M, Zupi G, Mottolese M. Evaluation of multiple bio-pathological factors in colorectal adenocarcinomas: independent prognostic role of p53 and bcl-2. Int J Cancer. 1999;84:545-552. |
55. | Sternberg A, Sibirsky O, Cohen D, Blumenson LE, Petrelli NJ. Validation of a new classification system for curatively resected colorectal adenocarcinoma. Cancer. 1999;86:782-792. [DOI] |
56. | Leo E, Belli F, Andreola S, Gallino G, Bonfanti G, Ferro F, Zingaro E, Sirizzotti G, Civelli E, Valvo F, Gios M, Brunelli C. Total rectal resection and complete mesorectum excision followed by coloendoanal anastomosis as the optimal treatment for low rectal cancer: the experience of the National Cancer Institute of Milano. Ann Surg Oncol. 2000;7:125-132. |
57. | Di Bartolomeo M, Bajetta E, Buzzoni R, Bozzetti F, Artale S, Valvo F. Integrated treatment with doxifluridine and radiotherapy in recurrent or primary unresectable rectal cancer. A feasibility study. Tumori. 1999;85:211-213. [DOI] |
58. | Kwok H, Bissett IP, Hill GL. Preoperative staging of rectal cancer. Int J Colorectal Dis. 2000;15:9-20. [DOI] |
59. | Nagtegaal ID, Kranenbarg EK, Hermans J, van de Velde CJ, van Krieken JH. Pathology data in the central databases of multicenter randomized trials need to be based on pathology reports and controlled by trained quality managers. J Clin Oncol. 2000;18:1771-1779. [PubMed] |