Diet as an epigenetic factor in inflammatory bowel disease

Table 1 Nutrients and their effect on epigenetic modifications in the context of inflammatory bowel disease

Nutrient(s)	Dietary sources	Biological activities	Epigenetic modifications	Ref.
Vitamin B (folate)	Leafy green vegetables, legumes, citrus fruits, and fortified grains	Methyl donor, DNA synthesis and repair	DNA methylation	[47-50]
Vitamin B12 (cobalamin)	Animal-based foods like meat, fish, eggs, and dairy products	Methyl donor	DNA methylation	[51]
Methionine	Protein-rich foods such as meat, fish, and dairy products	Methyl donor	DNA and histone methylation	[51,52]
Betaine (trimethylglycine)	Beets, spinach, and whole grains	Methyl donor	DNA and protein methylation	[53]
Choline	Eggs, liver, peanuts, and cruciferous vegetables	Methyl donor, lipid metabolism, and cell membrane structure	DNA methylation	[53]
Vitamins B2 (riboflavin) and B6 (pyridoxine)	Whole grains, nuts, seeds, poultry, fish, and leafy green	FAD and FMN precursors	DNA methylation	[54]
Vitamin D	Fatty fish, eggs	VDRs ligand	DNA and histone methylation	[55-60]
Vitamin A	Leafy green vegetables, orange and yellow vegetables, tomato, fruits, and vegetable oils	RARs and RXRs ligand	DNA methylation, histone methylation and acetylation	[61-64]
Vitamin E	Plant-based oils, nuts, seeds, fruits, and vegetables	Antioxidant	DNA and histone methylation	[64-68]
SCFAs	High-fiber diets	Inhibition of HDACs activity	Histone acetylation	[69-73]
Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG	Fermented foods	Anti-inflammatory	DNA methylation	[78]
EPA and DHA	Salmon, mackerel, and sardines, flaxseeds, and walnuts	Anti-inflammatory	DNA methylation, histone methylation and acetylation, non-coding RNA	[81-83]
Polyphenols	Plant-based foods, such as fruits (berries), vegetables, nuts, seeds, green tea, cocoa, and olive oil	Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant	DNA methylation and non-coding RNA	[84,85]

FAD: Flavin adenine dinucleotide; FMN: Flavin mononucleotide; VDRs: Vitamin D receptors; RARs: Retinoic acid receptors; RXRs: Retinoid X receptors; SCFAs: Short-chain fatty acids; HDACs: Histone deacetylases; EPA: Eicosapentaenoic acid; DHA: Docosahexaenoic acid.