Recent advances in non-invasive magnetic resonance imaging assessment of hepatocellular carcinoma

Table 1 Gadolinium-based magnetic resonance imaging contrast agent

Contrast agent	Category	Relaxivity	Structure	Concentration(mmol/mL)	Reccomended dosage (mmol/kg)
Gadoterate-meglumine	ECFAs	Standard	macrocyclic	0.5	0.1
Gadobutrol	ECFAs	Standard	macrocyclic	1.0	0.1
Gadoteridol	ECFAs	Standard	macrocyclic	0.5	0.1
Gadopentetate- dimeglumine	ECFAs	Standard	Linear	0.5	0.1
Gadoversetamide	ECFAs	Standard	Linear	0.5	0.1
Gadodiamide	ECFAs	Standard	Linear	0.5	0.1
Gadofosfaset-trisodium	BPCAs	High	Linear	0.25	0.03
Gadobenate- dimeglumine	HCAs	High	Linear	0.5	0.1
Gadoxetate-disodium	HCAs	High	Linear	0.25	0.025

ECFAs: Extracellular fluid agents; BPCAs: Blood pool agents; HCAs: Hepatocyte-specific contrast agents.

Table 2 Magnetic resonance imaging perfusion with dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging in the assessment of hepatocellular carcinoma, focus on diagnosis, characterization, response to therapy, and prognosis

Ref.	Year	Magnet (Tesla)	Contrast agent	Parameters
Diagnosis and characterization
Taouli et al[38]	2013	1.5 T	Gadobenate-dimeglumine and gadopentetate-dimeglumine	AF, VF, ART, DV, MTT
Chen et al[39]	2017	3 T	GD-EOB-DTPA	Ktrans, Kep, iAUC, max-Ktrans
Jajamovich et al[40]	2016	3 T	Gadobenate-dimeglumine	ART, K trans, ve, kep, τ
Abdullah et al[61]	2008	1.5 T	Gadoterate-dimeglumine	HPI, MTT, DV, TF, AF, PF
Response to therapy
Ippolito et al[41]	2016	1.5 T	GD-EOB-DTPA	ME, MRE, RAE, RE, RLE, RVE, TTP
Taouli et al[38]	2013	1.5 T	Gadobenate-dimeglumine and Gadopentetate-dimeglumine	AF, VF, ART, DV, MTT
Chen et al[45]	2016	1.5 T	Gadodiamide	Peak, Slope, AUC, Ktrans, Kep, Ve
Prognosis
Chen et al[45]	2016	1.5 T	Gadodiamide	Peak, Slope, AUC, Ktrans, Kep, Ve
Chen et al[45]	2016	1.5 T	Gadodiamide	ART, AF, PF, TF, MTT, DV, PEAK, SLOPE, AUC

ART: Arterial fraction; K trans: Contrast agent transfer rate constant from plasma to extravascular extracellular space; VE: Extravascular extracellular volume fraction; Kep: Contrast agent intravasation rate constant; τ: Mean intracellular water molecule lifetime; ME: Maximum enhancement; MRE: Maximum relative enhancement; RAE: Relative arterial enhancement; RE: Relative enhancement; RLE: Relative late enhancement; RVE: Relative venous enhancement; TTP: Time to peak; HPI: Hepatic perfusion index; MTT: Mean transit time; DV: Distribution volume; TF: Total blood flow; AF: Arterial blood flow; PF: Portal blood flow; AUC: Area under the gadolinium distribution-time curve.