Copyright
©The Author(s) 2018.
World J Gastroenterol. Apr 14, 2018; 24(14): 1521-1530
Published online Apr 14, 2018. doi: 10.3748/wjg.v24.i14.1521
Published online Apr 14, 2018. doi: 10.3748/wjg.v24.i14.1521
Table 1 Studies reporting the prevalence of people avoiding gluten-containing foods
Ref. | Country | Population | Sample size | Avoidance rate of gluten-based products |
Tanpowpong et al[60], 2012 | New Zealand | Pediatric | 916 | 5.2% |
Rubio-Tapia et al[61], 2013 | United States | Pediatric | 7798 | 0.7% |
DiGiacomo et al[62], 2013 | United States | National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey | 7762 | 0.6% |
Lis et al[63], 2014 | Australia | Adults | 910 | 41.2% |
Golley et al[64], 2015 | Australia | Adults | 1184 | 10.6% |
Mardini et al[65], 2015 | United States | Pediatric | 14701 | 1% |
Aziz et al[59], 2014 | United Kingdom | Adults | 1002 | 3.7% |
Van Gils et al[8], 2016 | The Netherlands | Adults | 785 | 6.2% |
Carroccio et al[7], 2017 | Italy | Adolescents | 548 | 2.9% |
Table 2 Main studies exploring the effect of gluten free diet in irritable bowel syndrome
Ref. | Country | Population | Outcome |
Wahnschaffe et al[67], 2001 | Germany | 102 IBS-D | Stool frequency/bowel movement improved in DQ2-8 positive subjects |
Aziz et al[68], 2016 | United Kingdom | 40 IBS-D | A 6-wk GFD reduced symptoms in 70% |
Vazquez-Roque et al[69], 2013 | United States | 45 IBS-D | Stool frequency/bowel movement reduced in patients under GFD |
Di Sabatino et al[5], 2015 | Italy | 59 IBS with self-diagnosis of NCGS | A challenge with 4 g/d of gluten worsened symptoms compared to placebo |
Shahbazkhani et al[70], 2015 | Iran | 72 IBS | Worsening of intestinal symptoms with gluten compared to placebo |
Zanwar et al[71], 2016 | India | 60 IBS | A 4-wk GFD improved a visual-analogue scale of symptoms |
Elli et al[72], 2016 | Italy | 140 IBS with self-diagnosis of NCGS | Only the 14% showed a response to GFD as well as challenge test |
Barmeyer et al[73], 2017 | Germany | 34 IBS | The 34% showed clinical improvement to GFD and continued for one year |
Table 3 Main extra-intestinal manifestations of non-celiac gluten sensitivity and associated disorders
Manifestations | Extra-intestinal manifestations | Level of evidence | Associated disorders | Level of evidence |
General symptoms | Tiredness | 4 | Aphthous stomatitis | 4 |
Lack of wellbeing | 4 | |||
Foggy mind | 4 | |||
Joint or muscle pain | 4 | |||
Arm/leg numbness | 4 | |||
Neurologic manifestations | Ataxia | 3b | ||
Neuropathy | 3b | |||
Encephalopathy | 3b | |||
Epilepsy | 4 | |||
Miopathy | 4 | |||
Myelopathy | 4 | |||
Demyelinating disease | 4 | |||
Psychiatric manifestations | Depression | 1c | Bipolar disorder | 4 |
Anxiety | 1c | Gluten psychosis | 4 | |
Autism | 2b | |||
Schizophrenia | 4 | |||
Other autoimmune diseases and rheumatologic diseases | Psoriasis | 2b | ||
Autoimmune thyroiditis | 2b | |||
Rheumatoid arthritis | 4 | |||
Scleroderma | 4 | |||
Sjogren syndrome | 4 | |||
Raynaud phenomenon | 4 | |||
Skin diseases | Dermatitis herpetiformis | 2b | ||
Contact dermatitis | 2b | |||
Rash and undetermined dermatitis | 2b | |||
Functional disorders | Fibromyalgia | 1c | ||
Irritable bowel syndrome | 1c | |||
Nutritional imbalance | Anemia | 4 | ||
Osteoporosis | 2b | |||
Other | Interstitial cystitis | 4 | ||
Ingrown hairs | 4 | |||
Rhinitis, asthma | 4 | |||
Postural tachycardia syndrome | 2b | |||
Oligo- or polymenorrhea | 4 |
- Citation: Losurdo G, Principi M, Iannone A, Amoruso A, Ierardi E, Di Leo A, Barone M. Extra-intestinal manifestations of non-celiac gluten sensitivity: An expanding paradigm. World J Gastroenterol 2018; 24(14): 1521-1530
- URL: https://www.wjgnet.com/1007-9327/full/v24/i14/1521.htm
- DOI: https://dx.doi.org/10.3748/wjg.v24.i14.1521