Role of artificial intelligence in the characterization of indeterminate pancreatic head mass and its usefulness in preoperative diagnosis

Table 1 Studies on differentiation of indeterminate lesions using artificial intelligence

No.	Ref.	Number of patients	Organ of interest	Sub-type of AI	Outcome
1	Ippolito et al[12], 2004	453	Thyroid nodule (benign vs malignant)	ANN	Refinement of risk stratification of FNAB and clinical data
2	Daniels et al[13], 2020	121	Indeterminant thyroid nodule	ML	ML and ultrasonography can identify genetically high risk lesions
3	Becker et al[14], 2018	632	Breast lesion (benign vs malignant)	Generic DLS	Aids diagnosing cancer on breast ultrasound images with an accuracy comparable to radiologists
4	Scott et al[15], 2019	125	Lung GGO (benign vs malignant)	ANN	Improve diagnostic ability using CT scan, PET, and clinical data
5	Guo et al[16], 2022	20	Indeterminant small lung lesions	DNN	DNN based method may detect small lesions < 10 mm at an effective radiation dose < 0.1 mSv.
6	Yasaka et al[17], 2018	460	Liver mass (HCC vs others)	CNN	High diagnostic performance in differentiation of liver masses using dynamic CT
7	Moawad et al[18], 2021	40	Adrenal incidentaloma (benign vs malignant)	ML	Machine learning and CT texture analysis can differentiate between benign and malignant indeterminate adrenal tumors
8	Stanzione et al[19], 2021	55	Indeterminant solid adrenal lesions	ML	MRI handcrafted radiomics and ML can be used to different adrenal incidentalomas
9	Massa'a et al[20], 2022	160	Indeterminant solid renal mass (benign vs malignant)	ML	MRI-based radiomics and ML can be useful in differentiation
10	Saraiva et al[21], 2022	85	Indeterminant biliary strictures	CNN	CNN can accurately differentiate benign strictures from malignant ones

AI: Artificial intelligence; ANN: Artificial neural network; CNN: Convolutional neural network; CT: Computed tomography; DNN: Deep neural network; DLS: Deep learning software; FNAB: Fine needle aspiration biopsy; GGO: Ground glass opacities; HCC: Hepatocellular carcinoma; ML: Machine learning; MRI: Magnetic resonance imaging.