Clinical use of augmented reality, mixed reality, three-dimensional-navigation and artificial intelligence in liver surgery

Table 2 Augmented and mixed reality in minimally invasive liver surgery

Ref.	No of procedures	Technique	Key outcomes
Volonté et al[19], 2011	4 procedures	Projection of the virtual 3D model on the body surface	Anatomical orientation and trocar placement improved
López-Mir et al[20], 2013	12 procedures	Projection of the virtual 3D model on the body surface	lower deviation between planned and actual trocar positions using AR
Pessaux et al[25], 2015	2 robotic liver resections	Virtual 3D model superimposed on console display, registration performed manually by a computer scientist	AR and registration process feasible, time to create AR 8 min
Schneider et al[22], 2020	18 laparoscopic liver resections	Passive polarizing 3D laparoscope, optical tracking of the laparoscope, semi-automatic registration	semiautomatic registration an image fusion achieved in 16/18 manual registration vs semiautomatic accuracy 11 mm vs 14 mm

AR: Augmented reality, 3D: Three-dimensional.