Metaverse for mental health disorders: Opportunities and challenges

Table 1 Metaverse: Structure and functions[7,9,11,14,15]

Core technologies	Features	Functions
Virtual reality involves immersion of the user in real-life like virtual environments employing headmounted displays, haptic device simulators and computerbased simulations. It creates a sense of presence and allows interaction with the environment	Three-dimensional experience. Virtual environment- non-tangible and digitally created. Immersive experience - complete transportation to and sensory engagement in virtual environments. Multimodal representations, content, and interactions involving all types of sensory stimuli. Interoperable network - the ability of components to work together and exchange information. Multi-user capability - in theory, unlimited number of users. Scalable – ability to expand to meet demands of users. Shared, interactive and collaborative. Decentralized - control lies in the hands of users. Avatars – digital representations of the user, controlled by users. Embodiment – sensing and feeling of ownership of avatars. Real-time - events are portrayed at the same rate at which the characters experience them. Integrity and data security – provided by blockchain technology. “Mirror world” – a virtual world that reflects an expanded version of the real world. “Virtual world” - a metaverse world peopled by avatars that is separate from reality. Fusion of the physical and virtual worlds – real and virtual world actions impact each other. Synchronous experience. Sustainable and persistent experience. Continuity – identity, experience, functions remain the same. “Lifelogging” – captures and shares daily life experiences of users. Individual sense of presence – sense of being there. Socially meaningful content- content that incorporates social values, which promotes user immersion	Basic functions: Socialization - social networking, social connectedness, social influence. Learning – social and other forms of digital learning. Cognitive and physical activation. Emotion regulation. Self-determination – autonomy, self-efficacy, sense of achievement and competence, self-awareness, control of self and environment
Augmented reality superimposes digital information on to the physical world using smartphones, smart glasses, or head-mounted displays. It allows users to interact with virtual objects in the real world
Mixed reality fuses elements from both the physical and digital worlds and allows interactions between these worlds during immersion. It enables greater control over the virtual objects than augmented reality
Extended reality includes virtual, augmented and mixed realities
Artificial Intelligence, machine learning, and big data analysis create dynamic, interactive, and user-responsive environments, predict user behavior, and guide user choices
Blockchain technology refers to secure storage of data in blocks linked together in a chain. The stored information is accessible but cannot be changed		Functions that impact mental health: Stress reduction. Social acceptance and support. Induces positive affect and improves life satisfaction. Improves wellbeing. Improves coping skills. Improves behavioral and social skills. Group interactions improve self-expression, understanding of self and others, communication and social skills
Edge/cloud computing: The process of bringing computation and storage elements closer to the network edge using cloud architecture
Internet of Things refers to the collective network of connected devices and the technology that facilitates communication between these devices and the cloud
Digital twin technology establishes a virtual twin of a real-world object, connects the digital representation to the real object, and predicts the behavior of the real-world object by real-life simulations
Non-fungible tokens are digital certificates of ownership and authenticity for digital or physical assets
Digital economy includes digital wallets and cryptocurrency to carry out secure digital transactions
Fifth generation internet with high bandwidth and low latency enables rapid and secure access and transactions