Recent developments in immunotherapy approaches for allergic rhinitis

Table 3 Comparison of different immunotherapies for allergic rhinitis

Method	Delivery route	Mechanism	Safety
SCIT	Subcutaneous (systemic) injection	IgG4 antibody induction[41]	Higher rates of systemic reactions[40]
SLIT	Sublingual (local) administration	IgA antibody induction[41]	Fewer systemic reactions than SCIT[40]
OIT	Oral cavity/gastrointestinal tract	Suppression of allergen-specific T-cell proliferation[50]	Oral pruritus[53]
ILIT	Lymph nodes	IgG4 antibody induction[54]	Safer than SCIT[58]
GIASIT	Intravenous infusion	Increased plasma gelsolin levels[59]	Mild side effects[59]
Combination of AIT and monoclonal antibody therapy	Subcutaneous monoclonal antibody and AIT route	Omalizumab (anti-IgE). Dupilumab (anti-IL4Rα). Tezepelumab (anti-TSLP)[62-64]	Mild or moderate application-site reactions[63]

Ig: Immunoglobulin; SCIT: Subcutaneous immunotherapy; SLIT: Sublingual immunotherapy; OIT: Oral immunotherapy; ILIT: Intralymphatic immunotherapy; GIASIT: Gold-induced autologous serum injection therapy; AIT: Allergen immunotherapy; TSLP: Thymic stromal lymphopoietin.