Molecular biomarkers for grass pollen immunotherapy

Table 2 Molecular biomarkers summarized for grass pollen allergy immunotherapy[26,39-44]

Biomarkers	Description, comments
CRD biomarkers used to guide AIT prescription
Serum specific IgE antibodies to rPhl p 1, rPhl p 2, rPhl p 5, rPhl p 6	Molecular specific biomarkers of genuine sensitization to Poaceae grass pollen
Serum specific IgE antibodies to nCyn d 1	Molecular specific biomarkers of genuine sensitization to Chloridoideae grass pollen
Serum specific IgE antibodies to CCDs	Molecular biomarkers of sensitization to CCDs involved in specific IgE assays cross-reactivity
Serum specific IgE antibodies to rPhl p 7	Molecular biomarkers of sensitization to pollen polcalcin panallergens cross-reactive with pollen from most plants
Serum specific IgE antibodies to rPhl p 12	Molecular biomarkers of sensitization to pollen profilin panallergens cross-reactive with pollen, some plant-derived foods and latex
Predictive candidate biomarkers of AIT clinical efficacy
Stabilin-1 (intracellular scavenger receptor), C1Q complement component expression	Intracellular biomarkers of tolerogenic dendritic cells
Coregulatory PD-L1 (B7-H1, CD274) expression	Surface cell biomarker of tolerogenic antigen presenting cells
Peripheral IL-10+Foxp3+ cells proportion among CD25+ CD4+ leukocytes	Regulatory T cell biomarker
Serum allergen-specific IgE to total IgE ratio	Allergen-specific antibodies biomarkers
Serum allergen-specific IgG4, IgG1 and IgA2
Inhibition of CD23-dependent IgE-FAB to B cells, serum specific IgE-BF competing with IgE for allergen binding	Functional biomarkers of serum IgG-associated inhibitory activity
Serum neopterin and kynurenine-tryptophan ratio	Molecular biomarkers of T cell mediated immune activation
Serum sHLA-G	Non-classical MHC class I immune tolerance molecular biomarker
Serum sTRAIL	TRAIL biomarker

CRD: Component-resolved diagnostic; CCDs: Carbohydrate cross-reactive determinants; IgE-FAB: IgE-facilitated allergen binding; IgE-BF: IgE-blocking factor; sHLA-G: Soluble HLA-G; sTRAIL: Soluble tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand; AIT: Allergy immunotherapy; PD-L1: Programmed death ligand-1; MHC: Major histocompatibility complex.