Gut virome: New key players in the pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease

Figure 4 Modification of local immune response through bacteriophage. An inflamed gut is characterized by microbiome imbalance including virome. An imbalanced virome is distinguished by an expansion of Caudovirales phages and lysogenic lifecycle as well as a decline in the relative abundance of the Microviridae family and crAss-like phage. Additionally, in the presence of a thin mucus lining or broken tight junction, microbial antigens (like viral antigens) can penetrate the intestinal epithelium, activate Toll-like receptor (TLR), upregulate pro-inflammatory cytokines production, and dysregulate anti-inflammatory cytokines production. IL: Interleukin; RNS: Reactive nitrogen species; ROS: Reactive oxygen species; TGF-β: Transforming growth factor beta; TNF-α: Tumor necrosis factor alpha.