Impact of curcumin on gut microbiome

Table 1 Pharmacological effects of curcumin

Pharmacological activity	Mechanisms/effects	Key points
Anti-inflammatory properties	Inhibition of NF-κB activation and suppression of inflammatory mediators; suppression of COX-2, LOX, and iNOS expression; modulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6); regulation of MAPK signaling pathways; inhibition of inflammatory transcription factors	Modulates gut microbiota
Antioxidant activities	Direct scavenging of free radicals; enhancement of cellular antioxidant defenses; upregulation of Nrf2 pathway; increase in antioxidant enzyme activities (SOD, CAT, GPx); metal ion chelation	Protects against oxidative stress-induced cellular damage
Anticancer properties	Cell cycle arrest and induction of apoptosis; Inhibition of cancer cell proliferation; modulation of microRNAs; suppression of angiogenesis; regulation of cancer stem cells; interference with signaling pathways (STAT3, Wnt/β-catenin, PI3K/Akt)	Gut microbiota interaction enhances effects
Immunomodulatory effects	Regulation of T cell differentiation and function; influence on B cell response; modulation of macrophage polarization; modification of dendritic cell function; alteration of natural killer cell activity	Significant impact on gut immunity
Neuroprotective activities	Protection of the blood-brain barrier; reduction of neuroinflammation; prevention of protein aggregation; enhancement of neuroplasticity; modulation of neurotransmitter systems	Gut-brain axis plays a crucial role
Cardiovascular protection	Improvement of endothelial function; reduction of atherosclerosis; modulation of lipid metabolism; prevention of cardiac hypertrophy; protection against ischemia-reperfusion injury
Antidiabetic effects	Enhancement of insulin sensitivity; protection of β-cell function; regulation of glucose metabolism; reduction of advanced glycation end-products; amelioration of diabetic complications	Ameliorates diabetic complications
Hepatoprotective activities	Prevention of hepatic fibrosis; protection against drug-induced liver injury; reduction of hepatic steatosis; modulation of liver enzyme activities; enhancement of hepatic regeneration
Antimicrobial properties	Broad-spectrum activity against bacterial, fungal, viral, and parasitic infections	Involves modulation of gut microbiota

TNF-α: Tumor necrosis factor-alpha; IL: Interleukin.