Aryl hydrocarbon receptor dynamics in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma: From immune modulation to therapeutic opportunities

Table 2 Mechanisms of action and potential effects of promising aryl hydrocarbon receptor antagonists on malignancies

AhR ligands	Mechanism of action	Potential effects on malignancies	Ref.
Natural products
Curcumin	Competitive binding to the AhR ligand-binding domain	Suppresses proliferation, migration, and invasion of cancer cells; may enhance anti-tumor immunity	[54,62,63]
Quercetin	Competitive binding to the AhR ligand-binding domain; may also inhibit AhR nuclear translocation	Suppresses proliferation and induces apoptosis in cancer cells	[55]
Resveratrol	May interfere with AhR-DNA binding; may also possess antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties	May inhibit tumor growth and metastasis	[55,64]
Synthetic ligands
CH-223191	Competitive binding to the AhR ligand-binding domain	Suppresses proliferation and migration of cancer cells	[65]
NH3 (Ammonia)	Competitive binding to the AhR ligand-binding domain	Shows promise in preclinical models, but may have limitations due to potential toxicity	[66]
Small molecule antagonists	Competitive binding to the AhR ligand-binding domain or interfering with AhR dimerization	Several novel small molecules are under development, with preclinical studies ongoing	[67,68]

AhR: Aryl hydrocarbon receptor.