Historical evolution, overview, and therapeutic manipulation of co-stimulatory molecules

Figure 2 Therapeutical manipulation of co-stimulatory molecules. Biological drugs have been developed to target co-stimulatory molecules and promote or inhibit their functions in distinct diseases. For example, the fusion protein abatacept blocks CD80/CD86 to prevent interaction with CD28; mAb iscalimab blocks CD40, ipilimumab blocks cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen-4, and pembrolizumab blocks programmed death-1 (PD-1). These strategies have been implemented to modulate co-stimulatory molecule functions in immune and cancer cells. MHC: Major histocompatibility complex; TCR: T cell receptor.