Regional anesthesia for acute pain management in elderly patients

Table 6 Pulmonary changes and the elderly patient[6]

Structural aging	Increase of lung parenchymal compliance due to degeneration of elastic fibers
	Loss of respiratory muscle mass resulting in less endurance and less respiratory reserve
	Increased alveolar permeability, which results in bronchial fluid with increased neurophils and increased ratio of CD4/CD8 cells
	Decreased surface area for oxygen exchange
Functional aging	Chest wall rigidity
	Reduced maximum breathing capacity
	A greater in difference between alvelolar and arterial oxygen concentration
	Increase in closing capacity
	Less effective coughing
	Impaired swallowing with high risk of aspiration pneumonia