Anaesthesia and pancreatic surgery: Techniques, clinical practice and pain management

Table 1 Risk-reduction strategies

Preoperative

Encourage cessation of cigarette smoking for at least 8 wk

Treat airflow obstruction in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or asthma

Administer antibiotics and delay surgery if respiratory infection is present

Begin patient education regarding lung-expansion maneuvers

Intraoperative

Limit duration of surgery to less than 3 h

Use epidural or blended anesthesia

Use laparoscopic procedures when possible

Substitute less ambitious procedure for upper abdominal or thoracic surgery when possible

Postoperative

Use deep-breathing exercises or incentive spirometry

Use continuous positive airway pressure

Use epidural analgesia

Use intercostal nerve blocks