Therapy of gallstone disease: What it was, what it is, what it will be

Table 1 Non-genetic risk factors for gallbladder stones

Age

Female gender

High-calorie, low-fiber diet

High-carbohydrate diet, dietary glycemic load

Obesity

Physical inactivity

Rapid weight loss/surgery for obesity

Total gastrectomy with lymph node dissection

Spinal cord injury

Infections: enterohepatic Helicobacter species, malaria

Biliary strictures

Drugs: estrogens, calcineurin inhibitors, fibrates, octreotide, ceftriaxone

Total parenteral nutrition

Duodenal diverticulum

Extended ileal resection (black pigment stones)

Vitamin B12/folic acid deficient diet (black pigment stones)

Pancreatic insufficiency

Cholangitis (brown pigment bile duct stones)

Adapted from Portincasa et al^[1] and Grünhage et al^[160] with permission.