Rebamipide in gastric mucosal protection and healing: An Asian perspective

Figure 1 Molecular-level mechanisms of the action of rebamipide. AKT/mTOR: Protein kinase B/mammalian target of rapamycin; AMPK: Adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase; Bax: B-cell lymphoma 2 associated X; Bcl-2: B-cell lymphoma 2; Bcl-xL: B-cell lymphoma extra-large; Bim: B-cell lymphoma 2 interacting mediator of cell death; CCl₄: Carbon tetrachloride; CD: Cluster of differentiation; COX-2: Cyclooxygenase-2; EGFR: Epidermal growth factor receptor; ERK1/2: Extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase 1 and 2; FGF2: Fibroblast growth factor receptor-2; GI: Gastrointestinal; H. Pylori: Helicobacter pylori; IL: Interleukin; JNK: Jun N-terminal kinase; MUC: Mucin; NF-κB: Nuclear factor kappa B; PGE2: Prostaglandin E2; PI3K/AKT: Phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B; PPAR-γ: Proliferator-activated receptor gamma; P38MAPK: P38 mitogen-activated protein kinase; Shh: Sonic hedgehog; SIRT1/FoxO3a/NRF2: Silent information regulator-1/forkhead box O3a/nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2; SMAD: Suppressor of mothers against decapentaplegic; TLR4/NF-κB: Toll-like receptor 4/nuclear factor kappa B; TNF-α: Tumour necrosis factor alpha; UC: Ulcerative colitis; VEGF: Vascular endothelial growth factor; ZO-1: Zonula-occludens.