Neuroimmunomodulation by gut bacteria: Focus on inflammatory bowel diseases

Figure 1 Modulation of cross-talk between the enteric nervous system and the enteric immune system via gut bacteria. Gut microbiota and vagus nerve stimulate mesenteric ganglion (enteric neuron) to produce neuromediators. Neuromediators act on various immune cells and influence their ability to release pro-inflammatory cytokines. During inflammatory bowel disease, dysbiosis in gut microbiota and abnormality in the enteric nervous system affect the level of neuromediators that results in overproduction of pro-inflammatory cytokines and promote inflammation. IL: Interleukin; TNF-α: Tumour necrosis factor-α; IFN-γ: Interferon-γ.