Problems with repairing gut sphincters malfunctions

Figure 1 Essential contents of the three parts of the manuscript (Past, Present, and Future) are summarized to explain the evolution of the operative methods utilized to address the problem of the faulty sphincter performance. The investigators started by repairing only one sphincterial function, but the consequences not always positive pushed them to the creation of artificial sphincters, which turned out to be a source of further problems, thus arriving to the conclusion that only the bioengineering methods represent the hope to create in the future safe and efficient sphincters.