Current trends in three-dimensional visualization and real-time navigation as well as robot-assisted technologies in hepatobiliary surgery

Table 1 Three-dimensional visualization and robot-assisted surgery in recent years

	Surgical site	Sample size	Patient type of disease	Imaging systems	Incidence of complications (%)	Summary of technology	Ref.
3D visualization	Bile duct department	1	Extrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma combined with paracolic bile duct	Synapse Vincent	0	Accuracy and reliability	Miyamoto et al[15], 2014
	Hepatic portal	47	Type-III cholangiocarcinoma of the porta hepatis	MI-3DVS		Safety, effectiveness, and feasibility	Zeng et al[16], 2016
	Liver	120	Hepatocellular carcinoma, bile duct cancer, liver transplantation	Synapse Vincent	10.8	Time savings	Nakayama et al[13], 2017
	Pancreas	64	Pancreatic cancer, biliary tract cancer, neuroendocrine tumors, IPMN	Synapse Vincent	14	Safety, effectiveness, and feasibility	Miyamoto et al[100], 2018
	Pancreas	44	Pancreatic cancer	MVT		Safety, effectiveness, and feasibility	Lin et al[17], 2020
Robot-assisted	Major and minor liver resections	40	Hemangioma, HCC, hydatid cyst, cholangiocarcinoma	da Vinci Surgical System	12.5	Safety and feasibility	Troisi et al[37], 2013
	Major liver resection	25	Fatty liver, hepatic hemangioma, giant adenoma, HCC, secondary liver carcinoma	da Vinci Surgical System	9.3	Safety and feasibility	Spampinato et al[33], 2014
	Wedge resection of the liver	20	HCC, secondary liver carcinoma, hepatic hemangioma, liver stones	da Vinci Surgical System	9.5	Safety and feasibility	Felli et al[47], 2015
	Cholecystectomy	38	Benign biliary disease	da Vinci Surgical System	0	Safety and effectiveness	Gustafson et al[51], 2016
	Cholecystectomy	1833	Benign gallbladder disease	da Vinci Surgical System, Zeus system, AESPO	9.3	No superiority over laparoscopy	Han et al[101], 2018
	Major and minor liver resections	1312	Liver tumors	da Vinci Surgical System	17.8	No superiority over laparoscopy	Zhang et al[2], 2020

MVT: A three-dimensional multi-touch visualization table introduced by Sectra in 2010 at the Radiological Society of North America. IPMN: Intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm; HCC: Hepatocellular carcinoma; 3D: Three-dimensional.