Diabetes-induced mechanophysiological changes in the small intestine and colon

Table 2 Diabetes mellitus-induced histomorphological changes of intestine and colon

	Intestine	Colon
Mucosa	Increased thickness[5,8,47,49]; Damaged tight junctions[260]; Proliferation of villi and crypt[41]; Decreased membrane fluidity[110]; Enhanced transport of glucose, amino acid, bile salts, phosphate, fatty acids, fatty alcohols, and cholesterol[110]; Decreased protein synthesis[261]; Increased expression of the monosaccharide transporters[262,263]; Increased expression of AGE and RAGE[47,49]	Increased thickness[10,49]; Increased thickness of the subepithelial collagen layer[276,277]; Abnormalities of endocrine cells[278]; Increased expression of RAGE[49]; Increased expression of AGE, RAGE, TGF-β1 and TGF-β1 receptor[52]
Submucosa	Increased thickness[5,8,47]	Increased thickness[10]; Increased expression of AGE, RAGE, TGF-β1 and TGF-β1 receptor[52]
Muscle	Increased thickness[8,47]; Increased expression of AGE and RAGE[49]	Increased thickness[10]; Hypertrophy of smooth muscle cells[51]; Increase type I collagen and expression of AGE[51]; Increased expression of AGE, RAGE, TGF-β1 and TGF-β1 receptor[52]
Wall as a whole	Increased thickness[8,47-50]; Increase expression of substance P[264] and neuronal nitric oxide synthase[265]; Dcreased expression of substance P[266], vasoactive intestinal polypeptide[262] and neuronal nitric oxide synthase[267]; Increased RAGE mRNA level[50]	Increased thickness[10,49]; Increase in substance P levels[264]
Nerve and ICC	Nuroaxonal dystrophy[48,268]; Decreased myenteric ganglia[269]; Decreased nitrergic neuronal cell number[270]; Decreased density of myenteric neurons[120]; Decreased number of myenteric neurons[271,272]; Increased expression of RAGE[49]; Decreased myosin-V-immunoreactive neurons[273]; Decreased ghrelin cell density[274]; Reduced number of ICC[99,275]	Impairment of nitrergic enteric neurons[111]; Decrease density and size of the myenteric neurons[15]; Decreased nitrergic neuronal cell number[280]; Decreased the numbers of nNOS, CHAT neurons and total neurons[279]; Increased expression of RAGE[49]; Apoptosis of neurons[244]; Decreased ghrelin cell density[274]; Reduced number of ICC[99,110,124,280] and impairment in the ultrastructures of ICC[99]

AGE: Advanced glycation end of product; RAGE: Advanced glycation end of product receptor; ICC: Interstitial cells of Cajal.