Defect of insulin signal in peripheral tissues: Important role of ceramide

Figure 1 Insulin signaling pathway. Insulin binds with insulin receptor (IR) that activates the IR substrates (IRSs), the phosphoinositide-3-kinase (PI3K), and protein kinase B/Akt (PKBAkt). Activated PKB/Akt mediates insulin metabolic effects and regulates nutrients homeostasis. PIP₂: Phosphorylate phosphatidylinositol, 4, 5-bisphosphate; PDK1: 3-phosphoinositide-dependent protein kinase 1; mTORC2: Mammalian target of rapamycin complex 2.